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十全武功

乾隆御用的盔甲,2007年摄于巴黎军事博物馆

十全武功是指《十全武功記》所提及的中国清朝乾隆帝在位期間的軍事功績,包括:兩平準噶爾、一平回部(今新疆南部),兩定金川(今四川西北部),兩征廓爾喀(今尼泊爾),一靖臺灣,一征緬甸,一征安南(今越南)。乾隆帝更自稱「十全老人」。

十全武功

平定準噶爾

清軍進入伊犁

乾隆十九年(1755年)準噶爾汗國爆發內亂。阿睦爾撒納率部兩萬餘歸降清廷,乾隆帝封阿睦爾撒納親王爵,双亲王俸,又命其為定邊左副將軍,從定邊將軍班第進攻準噶爾。清軍最終生擒達瓦齊汗,準噶爾汗國滅亡。

再平準噶爾

兆惠平阿睦尔撒纳叛亂

乾隆二十二年(1757年)阿睦爾撒納叛亂,清廷派兵征討。阿睦爾撒納逃亡,病卒於俄羅斯。兩次平定準噶爾前後花費二千三百萬兩。[1]

平定回部

兆惠在黑水突圍

乾隆二十二年(1757年),和卓後裔霍集占波羅尼都在新疆回部舉兵叛亂,史稱大小和卓之亂。清廷派兵出剿,佔領葉爾羌喀什噶爾。将军兆惠曾上奏:“我兵杀贼虽多,阵亡亦百余,总兵高天喜、原任前锋统领侍卫鄂实、原任副都统三格、侍卫特通额,俱殁于阵。”

平緬甸

乾隆二十七年(1762年)爆發清缅战争;乾隆帝派雲貴總督明瑞進攻緬甸首都阿瓦。清缅战争从1765年到1769年历时四年,前后四次出兵,耗费一千三百多万两[2],清兵多死於疫病,統帥明瑞亦陣亡。最后一次战争中,清政府任命傅恒再度進攻緬甸。當時有鄭昭暹邏起義,緬甸苦於兩面作戰。最後緬甸向清軍求和而結束戰爭。

兩平大小金川

清军攻克罗博瓦山碉

乾隆十二年(1747年),大金川(今四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州金川县土司莎羅奔劫持小金川(今四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州小金县)土司澤旺,起兵反清,清廷任命張廣泗爲川陝總督,前往征討大金川,戰爭持續到乾隆十四年(1749年)十月。

乾隆三十六年(1771年)大金川(今四川金川)索諾木與小金川(今四川小金)僧格桑聯合起兵。乾隆帝命四川總督阿勒泰、桂林前往平定,十二月,清军抵美诺,僧格桑見势穷,入大金川与索诺木合兵。阿桂与温福、丰昇额檄令索诺木交出僧格桑,索诺木不理。

乾隆三十八年(1773年)六月,清軍前敵木果木大營被藏族武士襲破,大小金川聯軍大敗清軍,溫福戰死。當時乾隆帝在熱河,以阿桂爲定西將軍,加派健銳營、火器營、黑龍江及吉林兵增援。乾隆三十八年阿桂前往鎮壓,十月,再度攻佔美諾。

乾隆四十年(1775年)七月,清軍逼近大金川勒乌围,索诺木鴆殺僧格桑,獻屍請降,阿桂不允。是年中秋夜,索诺木逃至刮耳崖(又称噶尔崖、噶拉依,今安宁地),清軍以大炮日夜猛轰,乾隆四十一年(1776年)二月索诺木出降,索诺木被凌迟死,大小金川終於平定,歷時五年,耗費白銀超過七千萬兩。[3]

平台湾

清朝舰队驶离台湾

乾隆五十一年年底(1787年1月),台灣林爽文莊大田等人以天地会名号起事,建立大盟主政权,即林爽文事件。乾隆五十二年,陕甘总督福康安入台進行镇压,林爽文、莊大田相繼被俘。前後耗費八百萬兩。[4]

平安南

黎昭統帝在孫士毅的軍營接受清朝冊封

乾隆五十四年(1789年)西山阮氏三兄弟推翻廣南國後黎朝;清廷大軍護送黎維祁到首都昇龍復位,途中遭到阮氏在河內的伏擊。西山阮氏國王阮文惠遣使向清廷謝罪,清廷封阮文惠為新安南國王。安南戰爭約費資一百萬兩。[5]

平廓尔喀

清军攻克廓尔喀的擦木堡垒

乾隆五十六年(1791年):平尼泊尔;監軍巴忠允諾每年予尼泊爾一萬五千兩贈款,尼泊爾退兵。巴忠向乾隆帝報告廓爾喀已降服。

再平廓尔喀

乾隆五十七年(1792年),為催迫達賴支付歲幣,廓尔喀再次侵略西藏,清廷派军鎮壓,尼泊尔归附清廷,第二次廓尔喀之役较之第一次战争表现出持续时间长、战事激烈。[6]《清史稿》中记述“廓尔喀之役,一千有五十二万两”。

紀功

18世紀乾隆時期清朝疆域與藩屬國[7]

1792年,廓尔喀(今尼泊尔)再次侵入西藏。清政府命福康安等率兵入藏,败廓尔喀兵。清兵凯旋之际,乾隆帝回忆即位后在边疆地区建立的十大武功,因作《十全记》以纪其事:“十功者,平准噶尔为二,定回部为一,扫金川为二,靖台湾为一,降缅甸安南各一,即今二次受廓尔喀降,合为十[8]”。乾隆帝因此自称“十全老人”。

这十场战争,前後達26年之久,虽以胜利居多,但有些战争其实胜中有败,其過程皆艱苦卓絕;特別是第二次金川之役战况尤為惨烈,两金川僻处川西一隅,人不足三万户,清军用兵五年,旷日持久,陣前双方士卒均死伤慘重,清廷不斷陣前易帥,三十八年,索諾木又叛,猛攻清军木果木大营,此役温福戰死,全师大溃。乾隆再命阿桂为定西将军,分道再举。为了攻破勒乌围的碉楼[9],乾隆甚至派遣西山健锐营前往戰地助陣,又选派西洋人傅作霖赴金川助阿桂设计先進火炮进剿,“攻破一碉,贼即乘其残垒,退而复筑”,清军以九个月的时间,进行了十分艰难的战斗,才向前推进了二十里的路程;清廷前後战死的官员更是高达千人,“自蚩尤以來,未有鑿凶裂罅、駭目讋魄如茲役者”[10]。十全武功的战争大量損兵折將,總軍費更高達一億三千萬兩[11],單是大小金川兩次戰爭就耗銀七千萬两。[12]

孟森评价:“高宗(乾隆帝)于新疆定后,志得意满,晚更髦荒。……自此以前,可言武功;自此以后,或起内乱,或有外衅,幸而戡定,皆救败而非取胜矣。”[13]以當時國庫收入,年僅三千餘萬兩,為了應付繁浩的軍費開銷,當時鹽商總計捐輸不下一千三百一十萬兩白銀之巨[14]。乾隆一朝窮兵黷武,中国疆域終於達1453万平方公里,清政府對川南废除土司制度,采取改土归流,设官管理,八年抗戰國民政府才得以倚賴四川為大後方長期支撐。然又因窮兵黷武,好大喜功,至乾隆晚年,盛世早成强弩之末,民变迭起,其中规模最大者为白蓮教,历时九年,至嘉慶九年始平,耗用軍費更在两亿兩之巨。

参考文献

引用

  1. ^ 鄭天挺:《清史探微》416頁載“兩次準噶爾戰爭用去二千三百萬兩”。
  2. ^ 鄭天挺:《清史探微》416頁載“緬甸戰爭用九百十一萬兩”。
  3. ^ 鄭天挺:《清史探微》416頁載“大金川戰爭用七百七十五萬兩,小金川戰爭用六千三百七十萬兩。”
  4. ^ 鄭天挺:《清史探微》416頁載“台灣戰爭用去八百萬兩”。
  5. ^ 鄭天挺:《清史探微》416頁載“安南戰爭用一百萬兩”。
  6. ^ 《清高宗实录》记载乾隆五十七年四月: “已降旨,令孙士毅即将前次备调川兵三千名迅速派拨,催促带兵将弁克日起程赴藏矣。藏内现备粮食,已足一万五六千人一年有余口粮,此时藏内原有兵丁及派调续调屯、土各兵,并索伦达斡尔兵,统计共有万余。今再加以添调川省兵三千名,亦不过一万三千余名。”
  7. ^ 中國歷史地圖集的35、清代疆域图. [2015-06-20]. (原始内容存档于2011-01-13). 
  8. ^ 《清高宗实录·卷1414》
  9. ^ 赵翼在《皇朝武功胜记》中写道:“其扼要处必有战碉……于墙垣间以枪石外击,旁既无路,进兵必须从枪石中过,故一碉不过数十人,万夫皆阻”。
  10. ^ 魏源在《圣武记》卷七《乾隆再定金川土司记》中述及戰事之艱難:“初,乾隆二十年,平准、回两部,辟地二万余里,用兵五年,用帑银三千余万两。金川地仅千里,不及准、回两部十之一二,而用兵亦五年,用帑银至七千万。功半而事倍者,则以天时之多雨久雪,地势之万夫莫前,人心之同恶誓死,兼三难而有之。方其神施鬼设,伺间出奇,九地九天,霆劈雹骤,或七萃从石缝而出,或千矛随炮声而入,险万阴平,艰百石堡(艱難百倍於唐代石堡),自蚩尤以来,未有凿凶裂罅、骇目詟魄如兹役者!”
  11. ^ 賴福順:《乾隆重要戰爭之軍需硏究》
  12. ^ 赵翼《檐曝杂记》卷二記載,大小金川兩次戰爭耗费军需银七百七十五万两,实销六百五十八万,移驳一百十七万。
  13. ^ 孟森清史讲义
  14. ^ 王家范《中國歷史通論》,331頁

来源

  • 啸亭杂录》卷六《平定回疆始末》
  • 賴福順:《乾隆重要戰爭之軍需硏究》
  • 庄吉发:《清高宗十全武功研究》

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1977 studio album by Margo SmithHappinessStudio album by Margo SmithReleasedApril 1977 (1977-04)RecordedMarch 1976 – February 1977StudioColumbia Recording StudioGenreCountrycountry pop[1]LabelWarner Bros.ProducerNorro WilsonMargo Smith chronology Song Bird(1976) Happiness(1977) Don't Break the Heart That Loves You(1978) Singles from Happiness Take My Breath AwayReleased: September 1976 Love's ExplosionReleased: January 1977 My WeaknessReleased: May 1977 So Close Again…

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Nutrient film technique – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Plants placed into nutrient-rich water channels in an NFT system A home-built NFT hydroponic system Nutrient film technique (NF…

يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (فبراير 2016) هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (…

This article is about the subway station. For the station of Keihan Electric Railway, see Sanjō Station (Kyoto). Metro station in Kyoto, Japan T11Sanjō Keihan Station三条京阪駅 Entrance No. 2 in 2017General informationLocationOhashicho, Higashiyama, Kyoto, Kyoto(京都市東山区大橋町)JapanCoordinates35°0′33.4″N 135°46′25.58″E / 35.009278°N 135.7737722°E / 35.009278; 135.7737722Operated by Kyoto Municipal SubwayLine(s) Tōzai LinePlatforms1 isl…

Regional parliament of Komi, Russia You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Russian. (July 2022) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Russian article. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-transla…

العصر الجليدي الأخيرمعلومات عامةجزء من غمر جليدي الرباعي تاريخ البدء 113 ألفية ق.م تاريخ الانتهاء القرن 97 ق.م الفترة الزمنية البليستوسين المتأخر إيميان current interglacial (en) تعديل - تعديل مصدري - تعديل ويكي بيانات أوروبا خلال العصر الجليدي الأخير قبل نحو 20.000 سنة. الشكل يبين مرحلتين…

У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Бурый медведь (значения). Бурый медведь Бурый медведь в Московском зоопарке Научная классификация Домен:ЭукариотыЦарство:ЖивотныеПодцарство:ЭуметазоиБез ранга:Двусторонне-симметричныеБез ранга:ВторичноротыеТип:Хордовы…

Кліндаміцин Систематизована назва за IUPAC methyl 7-chloro-6,7,8-trideoxy-6-{[(4R)-1-methyl-4-propyl-L-propyl]amino}-1-thio-L-threo-α-D-galacto--octopyranoside Класифікація ATC-код J01FF01 PubChem 446598 CAS 18323-44-9 DrugBank DB01190 Хімічна структура Формула C18H33ClN2O5S  Мол. маса 424,98 г/моль Фармакокінетика Біодоступність 90% Метаболізм Печінка Пе…

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