在1858年,理查·C·卡林頓和史波勒獨立確定與估計的太陽自轉週期在25到28天之間。他們發現,在每個週期中,多數太陽黑子的緯度從40°下降到5°,而在高緯度地區,太陽黑子的旋轉的速度較慢。太陽的自轉隨緯度的變化而變化,因此其外層必須是流動的。在1871年,赫爾曼·沃格爾和卜久之後的查理斯·奧古斯都·楊(英语:Charles Augustus Young)在光譜學上證實了這一點。尼爾斯·杜奈爾在19世紀80年代的光譜觀測顯示,太陽赤道較快的區域和極地較慢的區域之間有30%的差異[29]。
^Williams GE. Precambrian Cyclic Rhythmites: Solar-Climatic or Tidal Signatures?. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 1990, 330 (1615): 445. Bibcode:1990RSPTA.330..445W. S2CID 123165017. doi:10.1098/rsta.1990.0025.
^Schwabe (1843) 太陽觀測載於Google圖書 (Observations of the sun in the year 1843), Astronomische Nachrichten, 21 : 233-236. From page 235: "Vergleicht man nun die Zahl der Gruppen und der flecken-freien Tage mit einander, so findet man, dass die Sonnenflecken eine Periode von ungefähr 10 Jahren hatten … " (If one compares the number of groups [of sunspots observed on the sun] and the sunspot-free days with one another, then one finds that the sunspots had a period of about 10 years … )
NOAA / NESDIS / NGDC (2002) Solar Variability Affecting Earth (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) NOAA CD-ROM NGDC-05/01. This CD-ROM contains over 100 solar-terrestrial and related global data bases covering the period through April 1990.
Solanki, S.K.; Fligge, M. Long-term changes in solar irradiance. Wilson, A. (编). Proceedings of the 1st Solar and Space Weather Euroconference, 25-29 September 2000, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, Spain 463. ESA Publications Division. 2001: 51–60. Bibcode:2000ESASP.463...51S. ISBN 9290926937. ESA SP-463.|journal=被忽略 (帮助)
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