프랭클린 D. 루스벨트 1기와 2기 행정부

프랭클린 D. 루스벨트 행정부
1933년 3월 4일~1945년 4월 12일
대통령프랭클린 D. 루스벨트
부통령
제1기
1933년 3월 4일~1937년 1월 20일
여당민주당
선거1932년 대통령 선거
제2기
1937년 1월 20일~1941년 1월 20일
선거1936년 대통령 선거

프랭클린 D. 루스벨트 대통령의 1번째 임기는 1933년 3월 4일 제32대 미국의 대통령으로 취임하면서 시작되었고, 2번째 임기는 1941년 1월 20일 3차 임기에 취임하면서 끝났다. 가장 큰 주 뉴욕주에서 주지사를 지냈던 루스벨트는 1932년 대통령 선거에서 당시 대통령이었던 공화당허버트 후버를 상대로 압도적인 승리를 거두었다. 루스벨트의 임기 동안 그는 대공황을 해결하기 위해 미국인들과 미국 경제에 구호, 회복, 개혁을 제공하는 뉴딜 정책의 시행을 주도했다. 또한 그는 노동조합, 대도시의 정치기계, 백인, 아프리카계 미국인, 남부 농촌 백인 등 다양한 계층으로 구성된 뉴딜 연합을 조직하여 1960년대까지 국가 정치에서 지배적인 세력으로 유지하고 미국의 현대 자유주의를 개척했다.

취임 첫 100일 동안 루스벨트는 전례 없는 연방 입법을 주도하고 수많은 행정 명령을 발표했다. 그가 통과시킨 긴급은행법은 은행의 공황 상태를 종식시켰고, 은행법증권거래법은 금융 분야에 대대적인 개혁을 가져왔다. 실업자들에게 구호품을 제공하기 위해 루스벨트는 민간 보존단, 공공사업국, 연방긴급구호국 등 여러 기관의 설립을 주도하였으며, 농업 분야의 과잉생산을 방지하기 위한 여러 정책을 시행하기 위해 농업조정법을 제정하였고 산업 분야의 개혁을 위해 국가회복국을 설립했다.

1934년 중간선거에서 민주당이 압승을 거둔 후 루스벨트는 제2차 뉴딜 정책을 주도했다. 제2차 뉴딜 정책에는 최대 규모의 근로자 구호 기관인 공공사업진흥국 설립과 사회 보장을 위한 국가 연금 프로그램인 사회보장법의 제정 등이 포함되어 있었다. 또한 고용보험제와 미혼모가 가장인 가정에 부양 아동을 지원 제도를 확립했다. 1935년의 전국노동관계법은 근로자들의 단체교섭권을 보장하고 전국노동관계위원회를 설립했으며, 그 결과로 노동조합의 조합원 수가 크게 증가했다. 1936년 대통령 선거에서의 재선 이후 2번째 임기는 실망의 연속이었다. 루스벨트는 사법 절차 개혁 법안을 제안했으나 의회에 받아들여지지 않았다. 이후로도 보수 연합이 그의 입법 능력을 대부분 차단했기 때문에, 2번째 임기 동안 그는 국내 법안을 통과시키는 데 거의 성공하지 못했다. 이러한 상황에서 입법에 성공한 법 중 하나는 공정노동기준법이었다.

1930년대는 미국 역사상 고립주의가 절정에 달한 시기였다. 루스벨트의 1번째 임기 동안 그의 주요 외교 정책은 라틴아메리카 지역에 대해 간섭하지 않는다는 좋은 이웃 정책이었다. 1930년대 후반 독일, 일본, 이탈리아의 이웃 국가들에 대한 공격적 행보를 보이면서 외교 정책에 큰 문제가 대두되었으며, 의회는 미국이 외국 문제에 휘말릴 것을 우려하여 전시 상황의 국가와의 무역을 금지하는 중립법을 제정하였다. 일본이 중국을 침공하고 독일이 폴란드를 침공한 이후 루스벨트는 중국, 영국, 프랑스에 무기지원을 제공했지만 중립법으로 인해 긴밀하게 개입하지 못했고, 1940년 6월 프랑스의 항복 이후에서야 영국에 대한 무기지원을 확대하고 미국의 군사력을 확장했다. 1940년 대통령 선거에서 루스벨트는 그의 외교 정책에 대한 비판을 하지 않았던 공화당 국제주의자 웬들 윌키를 물리치고 3선에 성공했다. 루스벨트는 3선 이후 4선에도 성공하며 워싱턴의 2선 전통을 무너뜨리고 3선 이상을 역임한 유일한 미국의 대통령이 되었으며 이후 2선 이상의 임기를 제한하는 수정 헌법 제22조가 통과되도록 만들었다.

같이 보기

각주

참고 문헌

추가 문헌

전기 자료

  • Freidel, Frank. (1956) Franklin D. Roosevelt The Triumph (Little, Brown, 1956) vol 3 of 4-vol detailed scholarly biography covers 1929–32 online
  • Freidel, Frank. (1956) Franklin D. Roosevelt: Launching the New Deal (1973) vol 4 of 4-vol detailed scholarly biography covers Nov. 1932 to July 1933. online review; online
  • Freidel, Frank. (1991) Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny, complete biography to 1945. 710pp excerpt; also online
  • Hamby, Alonzo. For the survival of democracy: Franklin Roosevelt and the world crisis of the 1930s (2004) online
  • Leebaert, Derek. Unlikely Heroes: Franklin Roosevelt, His Four Lieutenants, and the World They Made (2023); on Perkins, Ickes, Wallace and Hopkins.
  • Pederson, William D (2011), 《A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt》, Companions to American History, Blackwell ; 35 essays by scholars emphasizing historiography. excerpt at Google
  • Sherwood, Robert E (1949), 《Roosevelt and Hopkins: an Intimate History》, Harper, hdl:2027/heb.00749, ISBN 9780060138455 , Pulitzer Prize; published in England as The White House Papers Of Harry L. Hopkins Vol. I (1948); online
  • Spencer, Thomas T. "For the Good of the Party: John Nance Garner, FDR, and New Deal Politics, 1933–1940." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 121.3 (2018): 254–282.

학술 자료

  • Badger, Anthony. The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940 (2002).
  • Biles, Roger. A New Deal for the American People (Northern Illinois UP, 1991).
  • Brinkley, Douglas G. Rightful Heritage: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Land of America (2016) excerpt; On FDR's environmental and conservation beliefs & policies.
  • Caughey, Devin, Michael C. Dougal, and Eric Schickler. "Policy and Performance in the New Deal Realignment: Evidence from old data and new methods." Journal of Politics 82.2 (2020): 494–508.
  • Clarke, Jeanne Nienaber. Roosevelt's Warrior: Harold L. Ickes and the New Deal (1996)
  • Connor, William James. "Steinbeck's Phalanx Theory: Reflections on His Great Depression Novels and FDR's New Deal." The Steinbeck Review 17.2 (2020): 214–229. online
  • Dunn, Susan. A Blueprint for War: FDR and the Hundred Days That Mobilized America (Yale UP, 2018).
  • Gosnell, Harold. Champion Campaigner Franklin D Roosevelt (1952) online
  • Hamby, Alonzo L. ed. The New Deal, Analysis & Interpretation (Longman Publishing Group, 1981). short excerpts from 14 scholars; online in TIF format
  • Hiltzik, Michael. The New Deal: A Modern History (2011), popular history emphasizing personalities; online
  • Holzer, Harold. The Presidents Vs. the Press: The Endless Battle Between the White House and the Media--from the Founding Fathers to Fake News (Dutton, 2020) pp. 145–166. online
  • Howard, Donald S. WPA and federal relief policy (1943), 880pp; highly detailed report by the independent Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Katznelson, Ira. Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (W.W. Norton, 2013) summary
  • Leuchtenburg, William E (2005), “Showdown on the Court”, 《Smithsonian》 (fulltext) 36 (2): 106–13, ISSN 0037-7333 ; 1937 Supreme Court fight
  • Meriam; Lewis. Relief and Social Security The Brookings Institution. 1946. Highly detailed analysis and statistical summary of all New Deal relief programs; 900 pages online
  • Mitchell, Broadus. Depression Decade: From New Era Through New Deal, 1929-41 (1947) online
  • Morris, Charles R. A Rabble of Dead Money: The Great Crash and the Global Depression: 1929–1939 (PublicAffairs, 2017), 389 pp. online review
  • Norpoth, Helmut. Unsurpassed: The Popular Appeal of Franklin Roosevelt (Oxford UP, 2018).
  • Pederson, William D (2011), 《A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt》, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 9781444330168 , 768 pages; essays by scholars covering major historiographical themes.
  • Phillips-Fein, Kim. Invisible Hands: The Businessmen’s Crusade Against the New Deal (2009) excerpt; same book also published as Invisible hands: the making of the conservative movement from the New Deal to Reagan
  • Purcell, Aaron D. ed The New Deal and the Great Depression (Kent State UP, 2014) 234pp online review
  • Riesch Owen, Anna L. Conservation Under FDR (Praeger, 1983) online
  • Riccards, Michael P., and Cheryl A. Flagg eds. Party Politics in the Age of Roosevelt: The Making of Modern America (2022) excerpt
  • Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr (1957–1960), 《The Age of Roosevelt》 , the 3-volume classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR.
    • Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. The Age of Roosevelt vol 1: The Crisis Of The Old Order (1919–1933) (1956) online to March 1933
    • Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. The Age Of Roosevelt vol 2: The Coming of the New Deal (1958) online covers 1933–34
    • Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. The Age of Roosevelt vol 3: The Age of Upheaval (1960); online
  • Sitkoff, Harvard (1978). 《A New Deal for Blacks》. ISBN 978-0-19-502418-0. 
  • Taylor, Nick. American-Made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA: When FDR Put the Nation to Work (2008) comprehensive history; 640pp excerpt

외교 정책

  • Andrew, Christopher. For the President’s Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush (1995), pp. 75–148.
  • Benjamin, Jules R. "The New Deal, Cuba, and the Rise of a Global Foreign Economic Policy." Business History Review (1977): 57–78. online
  • Beschloss, Michael. Kennedy and Roosevelt: The Uneasy Alliance (1980)
  • Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American foreign policy, 1932-1945 (2nd ed. Oxford UP, 1995), a standard scholarly survey. online
  • Herring, George C. (2008). 《From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776》. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0. 
  • Gellman, Irwin. Good Neighbor Diplomacy: United States Policies in Latin America, 1933-1945 (JHU Press, 2019).
  • Marks, Frederick W. Wind over sand: the diplomacy of Franklin Roosevelt (1988) online
  • Patel, Kiran Klaus. "Insulation: The Presidency Of Franklin D. Roosevelt During The Years 1933–1941." in A Companion to US Foreign Relations: Colonial Era to the Present (2020): 382–399.
  • Patel, Kiran Klaus. The New Deal: a global history (Princeton UP, 2017).
  • Perras, Galen Roger. Franklin Roosevelt and the Origins of the Canadian-American Security Alliance, 1933-1945 (Praeger, 1998.)
  • Tierney, Dominic. FDR and the Spanish Civil War: Neutrality and Commitment in the Struggle That Divided America (Duke University Press, 2007).
  • Tierney, Dominic. "Franklin D. Roosevelt and Covert Aid to the Loyalists in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–39." Journal of Contemporary History 39.3 (2004): 299–313. online
  • Welles, Benjamin, and Sumner Welles. Sumner Welles: FDR's Global Strategist A Biography (Macmillan, 1997).
  • Woods, Tim. "Capitalist class relations, the state, and New Deal foreign trade policy." Critical Sociology 29.3 (2003): 393–418.

비판

  • Doenecke, Justus D; Stoler, Mark A (2005), 《Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945》, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0847694150 . 248 pp.
  • Flynn, John T (1948), 《The Roosevelt Myth》 , former FDR supporter condemns all aspects of FDR.
  • Smiley, Gene (1993), 《Rethinking the Great Depression》 (short essay)  by libertarian economist who blames both Hoover and FDR.

주요 자료

  • 《Statistical Abstract of the United States》 (PDF), Bureau of the Census, 1951 ; full of useful data
  • 《Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970》, Bureau of the Census, 1976 . online
  • Cantril, Hadley; Strunk, Mildred, 편집. (1951), 《Public Opinion, 1935–1946》 , massive compilation of many public opinion polls from the USA; also some from Europe and Canada; online
  • Gallup, George Horace, 편집. (1972), 《The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935–1971》 , 3 vol, summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers. vol 1 online 1935-1948).
  • McElvaine Robert S. The Depression and New Deal: A history in documents (2000) online
  • Moley, Raymond (1939), 《After Seven Years》 (memoir)  by key Brain Truster
  • Nixon, Edgar B. ed. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, 1911-1945 (2 vol. 1957); vol 1 online; also see vol 2 online, covers governorship and presidency
  • Nixon, Edgar B, 편집. (1969), 《Franklin D Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs》  (3 vol), covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.
  • Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1945) [1938], Rosenman, Samuel Irving, 편집., 《The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt》 (public material only (no letters); covers 1928–1945), 13 volumes . [1]
  • ——— (1946), Zevin, BD, 편집., 《Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932–1945》 (selected speeches) .
  • The Documentary History of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidency (47 vol. ed by George McJimsey; University Publications of America, 2001–2008.) table of contents

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US Navy complex in Italy Naval Support Activity NaplesCapodichino, Naples, Campania in ItalyA parade at NSA Naples in 2013NSA NaplesLocation in ItalyCoordinates40°52′56.6″N 14°17′32.5″E / 40.882389°N 14.292361°E / 40.882389; 14.292361TypeNaval Support ActivitySite informationOwnerItalian Ministry of DefenceOperatorUS NavyControlled byCommander, Navy Region Europe, Africa, CentralConditionOperationalWebsiteOfficial websiteSite historyBuilt1951 ...

 

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الكلف نجمي هي ظاهرة نجمية على الشمس، تسمى كلفة شمسية، حجم الكلفة الشمسية من الصعب جدا الكشف عنه على النجوم الأخرى لأنها صغيرة جدا لتسبب التقلبات التي يمكن اكتشافها في السطوع. المواضع النجمية المرصودة هي بشكل عام أكبر بكثير من تلك الموجودة على الشمس، وهي تصل إلى حوالي 30٪ من...

 

Astrawinata Menteri Kehakiman Indonesia ke-13Masa jabatan9 Desember 1963 (1963-12-09) – 18 Maret 1966 (1966-3-18)PresidenSoekarnoPendahuluWirjono ProdjodikoroPenggantiWirjono ProdjodikoroWakil Gubernur Jawa Barat ke-2Masa jabatan6 Februari 1960 (1960-02-06) – 9 Desember 1963 (1963-12-9)GubernurMashudiPendahuluIpik GandamanaPenggantiE. Dachjar Sudiawidjaja Informasi pribadiLahirAchmad Astrawinata(1917-12-28)28 Desember 1917Palembang, Hindia Bel...