Indigenous Philippine folk religions (collectively referred to as Anitism or Bathalism), the traditional religion of Filipinos which predates Philippine Christianity and Islam, is practiced by an estimated 2% of the population,[2][3] made up of many indigenous peoples, tribal groups, and people who have reverted into traditional religions from Catholic/Christian or Islamic religions. These religions are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam. Buddhism is practiced by 0.04%[4] of the Philippine population by the Japanese-Filipino community,[5][3] and, together with Taoism and Chinese folk religion, is also dominant in Chinese communities. There are also smaller number of followers of Sikhism, Hinduism as well.[2][3][6][7][8]Irreligion in the Philippines is very low,[9][10] with 0.04% of the Philippine population self-reporting in 2020 as having no religion.[4]
According to the 2015 census, Evangelicals comprised 2% of the population. It is particularly strong among American and Korean communities, Northern Luzon especially in Cordillera Administrative Region, Southern Mindanao[11] and many other tribal groups in the Philippines.[citation needed] Protestants both mainline and evangelical have gained significant annual growth rate up to 10% since 1910 to 2015.[12]
About 6.4% of the population of the Philippines is Muslim as of 2020,[4] making Islam the second largest religion in the country. The majority of Muslims live in parts of Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu Archipelago – an area known as Bangsamoro or the Moro region.[13] Some have migrated into urban and rural areas in different parts of the country, and are highly visible in and around Metro Manila (especially in the 'Muslim Town' district of Quiapo in Manila, Baclaran in Parañaque, parts of Las Piñas, and Maharlika in Pasig), Metro Cebu, Baguio and the Calabarzon region (notably in urbanized towns and cities in Cavite, Laguna, and Batangas).[citation needed] Most Muslim Filipinos practice Sunni Islam according to the Shafi'i school.[14] There are some Ahmadiyya Muslims in the country.[15]
Freedom of religion
Freedom of religion in the Philippines is guaranteed by the Constitution under Section 5 of Article III (Bill of Rights), which states that "No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights".[16] In 2024, Freedom House gave the country a 4 out of 4 score for religious freedom.[17]
The Catholic Cebu Metropolitan Cathedral, built on the site of the Church of St. Vitales, the first church built in the Philippines
Catholicism (Filipino: Katolisismo; Spanish: Catolicismo) is the predominant religion and the largest Christian denomination in the Philippines comprising 78.8% of the population (or 85,645,362 million adherents)[a] in 2020.[4] It served as the country's state religion over most of the archipelago during the Spanish colonial period,[19] under the Spanish Constitution of 876.[20] Spanish efforts to convert many on the islands were aided by the lack of a significant central authority, and by friars who learnt local languages to preach. Some traditional animistic practices blended with the new faith.[21] Catholicism's status as state religion continued under the short-lived Malolos Republic. The American colonial government established a policy of separation of church and state, eventually ending prospects of establishing a state religion in the Philippines.[20]
Several Catholic holidays are culturally important as family occasions, and are observed in the civil calendar. Chief among these are Christmas, which includes celebrations of the civil New Year, and the more solemn Holy Week, which may occur in March or April. Every November, Filipino families celebrate All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day as a single holiday in honour of the saints and the dead, visiting and cleaning ancestral graves, offering prayers, and feasting.[23] As of 2018, Feast of the Immaculate Conception on December 8 was added as a special non-working holiday.[24]
Commonly shared beliefs in the Aglipayan Church are the rejection of the Apostolic Succession solely to the Petrine Papacy, the acceptance of priestly ordination of women, the free option of clerical celibacy, the tolerance to join Freemasonry groups, and the advocacy of contraception and same-sex civil rights among its members. Many saints canonised by Rome after the schism are also not officially recognised by the Aglipayan church and its members, but they recognise the popes that have been universally canonised as saints before the schism.
In 2020, the Philippine Independent Church had around 1,458,992 adherents (1.4% of the Philippine population).[4] Aglipayans in the Philippines claim to number at least 6 to 8 million members, with most from the northern part of Luzon, especially in the Ilocos Region and in the parts of Visayas like Antique, Iloilo and Guimaras provinces. Congregations are also found throughout the Philippine diaspora in North America, Europe, Middle East and Asia. With the exception of the Unitarian Iglesia ni Cristo, the church is the second-largest single Christian denomination in the country after the Roman Catholic Church (some 80.2% of the population). It has 48 dioceses plus the 2 dioceses outside the Philippines such as the Diocese of Tampa (USA) and the Diocese of Western USA, Western Canada, and the Pacific Islands. It has Fellowship congregations in the United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Hong Kong and Singapore. IFI is in full communion with the Anglican Churches and The Episcopal Church.[25][26][27]
Iglesia ni Cristo (English: Church of Christ; Spanish: Iglesia de Cristo) is the largest entirely locally initiated religious organisation in the Philippines comprising roughly 2.6% of religious affiliation in the country.[28][29][30][31][32]Felix Y. Manalo officially registered the church with the Philippine Government on July 27, 1914[33] and because of this, most publications refer to him as the founder of the church. Felix Manalo claimed that he was restoring the church of Christ that was lost for 2,000 years. He died on April 12, 1963, aged 76.
The Iglesia ni Cristo is known for its large evangelical missions. The largest of which was the Grand Evangelical Mission (GEM) which also occurred simultaneously on 19 sites across the country. In Manila site alone, more than 600,000 people attended the event.[34] Other programs includes the Lingap sa Mamamayan (Aid to Humanity),[35] The Kabayan Ko Kapatid Ko (My Countrymen, My Brethren) and various resettlement projects for affected individuals.[36] The church has been embroiled in corruption scandals, as well as allegations of illegal detentions in 2015, leading to widespread protests.[37][38][39] Issues about the idolization of the group's founder and the church establishment over the Bible have also surfaced, as well as the outcasting of members who question the leaders of the church.[40]
The Seventh-day Adventist Church (Filipino: Iglesia Adventista ng Ikapitong Araw; Spanish: Iglesia Adventista del Septimo Dia) is the fourth largest Christian denomination and fifth largest religious affiliation in the Philippines, behind Philippine Independent Church or Aglipay.[41] The church was established in the Philippines in 1905. Robert Caldwell, a literature evangelist missionary, arrived in Manila on August 24 of that year and pioneered the literature ministry by selling books in the language people understand – Spanish. People bought books and spread the word to their friends. In 1906, the Philippine Mission was organized under the Asiatic Division with headquarters located in Shanghai, China.[42]
The Seventh-day Adventist Church was co-founded by Ellen G. White, which is best known for its teaching that Saturday, the seventh day of the week, is the Sabbath, and that the second advent of Christ is imminent. Colloquially called Sabadístas by outsiders, Filipino Adventists numbered 862,725 as of 2020 with an annual membership growth rate of 5.6%.[needs update][43] As of 2022, the Seventh-day Adventist Church has 5,358 churches in the Philippines.[44] Numerous primary and secondary schools, colleges, and a university—notably, the Adventist University of the Philippines and Adventist International Institute of Advance Studies–were established to provide education to students as well as to assist in preaching and evangelization of the church in different parts of the country.[45]
The Jesus Miracle Crusade International Ministry (JMCIM) is an apostolic Pentecostal religious group from the Philippines which believes in the gospel of Jesus Christ with signs, wonders, miracles and faith in God for healing. JMCIM was founded by evangelist Wilde E. Almeda on February 14, 1975.[46][47]
Ang Dating Daan Convention Center in Apalit, Pampanga
Members Church of God International (MCGI, Filipino: Mga Kaanib sa Iglesia ng Dios Internasyonal) is a religious organization popularly known through its Filipino television program, Ang Dating Daan (English Program "The Old Path"; in Spanish El Camino Antiguo; in Portuguese O Caminho Antigo). MCGI are one of the Christian majority in the Philippines with more than a million members internationally.
The church is known for their "Bible Expositions", where guests and members are given a chance to ask any biblical question to the "Overall Servant" Eliseo Soriano. He and his associates refute teachings of asked religions which are, according to Soriano, "not biblical" and discuss controversial passages. Besides general preaching, they also established charity works. Among these humanitarian services are The Legacy Continues Wish granting activity, MCGI Free Store, Free Meal and Free Potable Water; charity homes for the senior citizens and orphaned children and teenagers; transient homes; medical missions; full college scholarship; start-up capital for livelihood projects; vocational training for the differently-abled; free legal assistance; free bus, jeepney, and train rides for commuters and senior citizens, and; free Bibles for everyone. MCGI is now one of the major blood donor in the Philippines, as acknowledged and awarded by the Philippine National Red Cross' Jose Rizal Award, the highest honor given by PNRC.[48]
Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus
The Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus (Filipino: Kabanalbanalang Iglesia ng Dios kay Kristo Hesus),[49][50] is an independent Christian denomination officially registered in the Philippines by Teofilo D. Ora in May 1922. The church claims to restore the visible church founded in Jerusalem by Christ Jesus. It has spread to areas including California, Calgary, Dubai, and other Asian countries. According to the 2020 census, the church had 9,585 members in the Philippines.[51]
The church was founded by Bishop Teofilo D. Ora in 1922. He, along with Avelino Santiago and Nicolas Perez, split off from the Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) in 1921. They initially called their church Iglesia Verdadera de Cristo Hesus (True Church of Christ Jesus). However, following a religious doctrine controversy, Nicolas Perez split off from the group and registered an offshoot called Iglesia ng Dios kay Kristo Hesus, Haligi at Suhay ng Katotohanan (Church of God in Christ Jesus, the Pillar and Support of the Truth). Teofilo D. Ora was bishop until his death in 1969. He was officially succeeded by Bishop Salvador C. Payawal who led the church until 1989. Subsequent bishops were Bishop Gamaliel T. Payawal (1989 to 2003) and Bishop Isagani N. Capistrano (2003–present). It was during Gamaliel Payawal's tenure when the church was renamed as Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus.
Apostolic Catholic Church (ACC; Filipino: Apostolika't Katolikang Simbahan) is an Independent Catholic denomination established in 1992 by John Florentine L. Teruel. The church started as a mainstream Catholic lay organization that was founded in Hermosa, Bataan in the early 1970s by Maria Virginia P. Leonzon Vda. De Teruel.[52] In 1991 the organisation and the Roman Catholic Church had a schism; due to varying issues, it formally separated itself from the Roman Catholic Church, when John Florentine Teruel was consecrated as a patriarch and registered the church as a Protestant and Independent Catholic denomination.[53]
As of 2020[update], the Apostolic Catholic Church has 54,543 members in the Philippines.[51] The National Council of Churches in the Philippines reports that the Apostolic Catholic Church has more than 5 million members worldwide.[54] The largest international congregations are in Japan, United States and Canada.[citation needed]
Protestantism arrived in the Philippines with the take-over of the islands by Americans at the turn of the 20th century. In 1898, Spain lost the Philippines to the United States. After a bitter fight for independence against its new occupiers, Filipinos surrendered and were again colonized. The arrival of Protestant American missionaries soon followed. As of 2015[update], Protestants comprised about 10%-15% of the population, with an annual growth rate of 10% since 1910[57] and constitute the largest Christian grouping after Catholicism. Protestants were 10.8% of the population in 2010.[58] Protestant church organizations established in the Philippines during the 20th century include the following:
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in the Philippines was founded during the Spanish-American War in 1898. Two men from Utah who were members of the United States artillery battery, and who were also set apart as missionaries by the Church before they left the United States, preached while stationed in the Philippines. Missionary work picked up after World War II, and in 1961 the Church was officially registered in the Philippines.[61] In 1969, the Church had spread to eight major islands and had the highest number of baptisms of any area in the Church. Membership was 805,209 in 2019.[62] A temple was built in 1984 which is located in Manila, and a second temple was completed in Cebu City in 2010. By 2019, four more LDS temples had been announced, they are planned to be built in Urdaneta, Cagayan de Oro, Davao, as well as a second temple in the greater Manila area.[63]
As of 2024, a total of 10 temples were either operating, under construction, or announced within the country.[64]
United Pentecostal Church International (Oneness) originated in the United States as an offshoot of the Pentecostal movements in the 1920s. The church is a proponent of the belief of modalism to describe God, and is non-trinitarian in its conception of God.
Churches of Christ (Churches of Christ 33 AD/the Stone-Campbellites) is a restorationist movement that distinctly believes in a set of steps or ways to attain salvation, among of which is prerequisite immersion baptism.
True Jesus Church a "oneness" movement that started in the People's Republic of China.
Jesus is Our Shield Worldwide Ministries (commonly known as Oras ng Himala, "Hour of Miracle[s]") was founded by Renato D. Carillo, who claims to be the end-times apostle.
Islam reached the Philippines in the 14th century with the arrival of Muslim traders from the Persian Gulf, Southern India, and their followers from several sultanate governments in Maritime Southeast Asia. Islam's predominance reached all the way to the shores of Manila Bay, home to several Muslim kingdoms. During the Spanish conquest, Islam had a rapid decline as the predominant monotheistic faith in the Philippines as a result of the introduction of Roman Catholicism by Spanish missionaries and via the Spanish Inquisition.[69] The southern Filipino tribes were among the few indigenous Filipino communities that resisted Spanish rule and conversions to Roman Catholicism. The vast majority of Muslims in Philippines follow Sunni Islam of Shafi and Ash'ari school of jurisprudence and Theology, with small Shia and Ahmadiyya minorities.[15] Islam is the oldest recorded monotheistic religion in the Philippines.
According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, the Muslim population of the Philippines in 2020 was 6.98 million (6.4%).[4]However, a 2012 estimate by the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos (NCMF) stated that there were 10.7 million Muslims, or approximately 11 percent of the total population.[failed verification][70] Some Muslim scholars have observed that difficulties in getting accurate numbers have been compounded in some Muslim areas by the hostility of the inhabitants to government personnel, leading to difficulty in getting accurate data for the Muslim population in the country.[71] The majority of Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands.[72]
The Baháʼí Faith in the Philippines started in 1921 with the first Baháʼí first visiting the Philippines that year,[73] and by 1944 a Baháʼí Local Spiritual Assembly was established.[74] In the early 1960s, during a period of accelerated growth, the community grew from 200 in 1960 to 1000 by 1962 and 2000 by 1963. In 1964 the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the Philippines was elected and by 1980 there were 64,000 Baháʼís and 45 local assemblies.[75] The Baháʼís have been active in multi/inter-faith developments. The 2010 World Christian Encyclopedia estimates the Philippines has the world's sixth largest population of Baháʼís, at just over 275,000.[76]
In the 1590s some Jews fleeing from the Inquisition were recorded to have come to the Philippines.[77] In 2006, Metro Manila had the largest Jewish community in the Philippines, which consisted of roughly 100 families.[77] As of 2018[update], the Jewish population comprised between 100 and 300 individuals, depending on one's definition of "Jew".[78]
The country's only synagogue, Beth Yaacov, is located in Makati.[77] There are other Jews elsewhere in the country,[77] but these are much fewer and almost all transients,[79] either diplomats or business envoys, and their existence is almost totally unknown in mainstream society. There are a few Israelis in Manila recruiting caregivers for Israel, some work in call centers, entrepreneurs, and a few other executives.
No written records exist about the early Buddhism in the Philippines. However, archaeological discoveries and the few scant references in the other nations' historical records can tell about the existence of Buddhism from the 9th century onward in the islands. These records mention the independent states that comprise the Philippines and which show that they were not united as one country in the early days. Archaeological finds include Buddhist artifacts. The style are of Vajrayana influence.[citation needed]
Loanwords with Buddhist context appear in languages of the Philippines.[80][81] Archaeological finds include Buddhist artifacts.[82][83] The style are of Vajrayana influence.[84][85]
The Philippines's early states must have become the tributary states of the powerful Buddhist Srivijaya empire that controlled the trade and its sea routes from the 6th century to the 13th century in Southeast Asia. The states's trade contacts with the empire long before or in the 9th century must have served as the conduit for introducing Vajrayana Buddhism to the islands.
Both Srivijaya empire in Sumatra and Majapahit empire in Java were unknown in history until 1918 when the Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient's George Coedes postulated their existence because they had been mentioned in the records of the Chinese Tang and Sung imperial dynasties. Ji Ying, a Chinese monk and scholar, stayed in Sumatra from 687 to 689 on his way to India. He wrote on the Srivijaya's splendour, "Buddhism was flourishing throughout the islands of Southeast Asia. Many of the kings and the chieftains in the islands in the southern seas admire and believe in Buddhism, and their hearts are set on accumulating good action."
Both empires replaced their early Theravada Buddhist religion with Vajrayana Buddhism in the 7th century.[86]
According to the 2020 Census, there were 39,158 adherents of Buddhism in the Philippines.[87] Alternatively, a presenter at the Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Philippines to the United Nations claimed in her speech that 2% of the Philippine population practiced Buddhism.[88] Buddhism practice is concentrated among Filipinos of both Chinese and Japanese descents.[89][90] There are several prominent Buddhist temples in the country like Seng Guan Temple in Manila and Lon Wa Buddhist Temple in Mindanao.
The Srivijaya Empire and Majapahit Empire on what is now Malaysia and Indonesia, introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the islands.[91] Ancient statues of Hindu-Buddhist gods have been found in the Philippines dating as far back as 600 to 1600 years from present.[92]
The archipelagos of Southeast Asia were under the influence of Hindu Tamil people, Gujarati people and Indonesian traders through the ports of Malay-Indonesian islands. Indian religions, possibly an amalgamated version of Hindu-Buddhist arrived in Philippines archipelago in the 1st millennium, through the Indonesian kingdom of Srivijaya followed by Majapahit. Archeological evidence suggesting exchange of ancient spiritual ideas from India to the Philippines includes the 1.79 kilogram, 21 carat gold Hindu goddess Agusan (sometimes referred to as Golden Tara), found in Mindanao in 1917 after a storm and flood exposed its location.
Another gold artifact, from the Tabon caves in the island of Palawan, is an image of Garuda, the bird who is the mount of Vishnu. The discovery of sophisticated Hindu imagery and gold artifacts in Tabon caves has been linked to those found from Oc Eo, in the Mekong Delta in Southern Vietnam.[93] These archaeological evidence suggests an active trade of many specialized goods and gold between India and Philippines and coastal regions of Vietnam and China. Golden jewelry found so far include rings, some surmounted by images of Nandi – the sacred bull, linked chains, inscribed gold sheets, gold plaques decorated with repoussé images of Hindu deities.[94]
Today Hinduism is largely confined to the Indian Filipinos and the expatriate Indian community. There are temples also for Sikhism, also located in the provinces and in the cities, sometimes located near Hindu temples. The two Paco temples are well known, comprising a Hindu temple and a Sikh temple.
There are two Hindu temples in Manila city: Hari Ram Temple (Paco) and Saya Aur Devi Mandir Temple (Paco). There is a Hindu temple called "Indian Hindu Temple" in Cebu City, Philippines. There is a Hindu Temple in Baguio, Philippines called "Baguio Hindu Temple". The population of Hindus in the Philippines is 32,711[95]
Indigenous Philippine folk religions, also referred to as Anitism,[96][97] are a diverse group of native religions that have existed in the islands as the people's original faiths. Each possess their own set of belief systems and religious stories and narratives, mostly originating from beliefs held during the pre-Hispanic era, although many are also modern. Some of these beliefs have been influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism and were falsely regarded by the Spanish and American colonizers as "myths" and "superstitions" in an effort to de-legitimize the precolonial beliefs of Filipinos against Filipinos. Today, some of these native beliefs are still held by many Filipinos, both in urban and rural areas.
These religions tell the story of various narratives originating from various sources, having similarities with Indonesian and Malay religious narratives, as well as Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist, and Christian traditions. Beliefs include the notions of heaven (kaluwalhatian, kalangitan, kamurawayan, etc.), hell (kasamaan, sulad, etc.), and the human soul (kaluluwa, kaulolan, etc.). They explain the nature of the world through the lives and actions of deities (gods, goddesses), heroes, and other beings. The majority of these religious narratives are passed on through oral tradition, and preserved through the aid of community spiritual leaders or shamans (babaylan, katalonan, mumbaki, baglan, machanitu, walian, mangubat, bahasa, etc.) and community elders.
Today, many ethnic peoples continue to practice and conserve their unique indigenous religions, notably in ancestral domains, although foreign and foreign-inspired Hispanic and Arabic religions continue to interfere with their life-ways through conversions, land-grabbing, inter-marriage, and/or land-buying. Various scholarly works have been made regarding Anitism and its many religious aspects, although much of its stories and traditions are still undocumented by the international community.[98][99][96][100]
The 2020 census recorded 0.23% of the population adhering to the Indigenous Philippine folk religions,[4] an increase from the previous 2010 census which notes a 0.19% adherence.[101]
Revitalization attempts
In search of a national culture and identity, away from those imposed by Spain during the colonial age, Filipino revolutionaries during the Philippine revolution proposed to revive the indigenous Philippine folk religions and make them the national religion of the entire country. The Katipunan opposed the religious teachings of the Spanish friars, saying that they "obscured rather than explained religious truths." After the revival of the Katipunan during the Spanish–American War, an idealized form of the folk religions was proposed by some, with the worship of God under the ancient name of Bathala, which applies to all supreme deities under the many ethnic pantheons in the Philippines.[102]
The Philippine Atheists and Agnostics Society (PATAS) is a nonprofit organization for the public understanding of atheism and agnosticism in the Philippines which educates society, and eliminates myths and misconceptions about atheism and agnosticism.[103] In February 2009, Filipino Freethinkers[104] was formed. Since 2011, the Philippine Atheists and Agnostics Society has held its OUT Campaigns in Rizal Park and Quezon Memorial Circle. Also it held two feeding programs "Good without Religion" in Bacoor, Cavite.[105] The society also is a member affiliate and associate of various international atheist organizations such as the Atheist Alliance International, Institute for Science and Human Values, and the International Humanist and Ethical Union, as one among secular organizations that promotes free thought and scientific development in the Philippines.[106] The 2015 Philippine Census reported the religion of about 0.02% of the population as "none".
As of 2021, the Philippine Atheists and Agnostics Society is dormant and non-active, following a major internal scandal on finance matters.[failed verification][101]
Perception of religion during the COVID-19 pandemic
According to a 2020 survey by the Social Weather Stations (SWS), there had been a decline in the perception of importance in religion amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the survey, 73 percent of Filipino adults deemed religion as important, which fell by 10 points compared to the pre-pandemic December 2019 survey which stated 83 percent believed religion is important in their lives.[107]
Christianity, especially Catholicism, received a significant decline from 84 percent to 71 percent; other Christian denominations, except the Iglesia ni Cristo, fell from 78 percent to 71 percent. Iglesia ni Cristo, meanwhile, increased from 69 percent to 88 percent. In terms of Islam, it fell from 94 percent to 93 percent as "very important", almost receiving no change.[107]
The 2020 SWS survey stated that Mindanao had a huge number of respondents who viewed religion as important (88 percent), followed by Luzon and Metro Manila (70 percent each), with Visayas being the lowest (64 percent).[107]
The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines declares: The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable. (Article II, Section 6), and, No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights. (Article III, Section 5). Joaquin Bernas, a Filipino Jesuit specializing in constitutional law, acknowledges that there were complex issues that were brought to court and numerous attempts to use the separation of Church and State against the Catholic Church, but he defends the statement, saying that "the fact that he [Marcos] tried to do it does not deny the validity of the separation of church and state".[108]
On April 28, 2004, the Philippines Supreme Court reversed the ruling of a lower court ordering five religious leaders to refrain from endorsing a candidate for elective office.[109][110] Manila Judge Conception Alarcon-Vergara had ruled that the
"head of a religious organization who influences or threatens to punish members could be held liable for coercion and violation of citizen's right to vote freely". The lawsuit filed that "the Church's active participation in partisan politics, using the awesome voting strength of its faithful flock, will enable it to elect men to public office who will in turn be forever beholden to its leaders, enabling them to control the government".
^"Iglesia ni Kristo". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Archived from the original on January 7, 2009. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
^Sanders, Albert J., "An Appraisal of the Iglesia ni Cristo," in Studies in Philippine Church History, ed. Anderson, Gerald H. (Cornell University Press, 1969)
^Bevans, Stephen B.; Schroeder, Roger G. (2004). Constants in Context: A Theology of Mission for Today (American Society of Missiology Series). Orbis Books. p. 269. ISBN1-57075-517-5.
^Kwiatkowski, Lynn M. (October 1999). Struggling With Development: The Politics Of Hunger And Gender In The Philippines. Westview Press. p. 286. ISBN978-0-8133-3784-5.
^Article Provided By Rev. Philemon Castro. "The Orthodox Church In The Philippines". Dimitris Papadias, Professor at the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Hong Kong. Archived from the original on October 7, 1999.
^Universal House of Justice (1986). "Part Five: In Memoriam". The Baháʼí World. Vol. 18. Baháʼí World Centre. Table of Contents and pp.513, 652–9. ISBN0-85398-234-1. Archived from the original on May 17, 2004. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
^L. W. V. Kennon (August 1901). "The Katipunan of the Philippines". The North American Review. 17 (537). University of Northern Iowa: 211, 214. JSTOR25105201.
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