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Draft:Repentance Ritual

Full digitalized text of the ritual manual for the Liang Huang Bao Chan (梁皇寶懺, lit: "Repentance Ritual of the Emperor of Liang"), a popular Chinese Buddhist repentance ritual.

A repentance ritual (Chinese: 懺悔, Japanese: 懺悔, Korean: 참회, Vietnamese: Sám Hối) is a class of rituals in Buddhism, especially East Asian Buddhism, that is typically performed in order to cleanse one's negative karma, purify the mind and generate merits. Originating from Buddhist sūtras regarding repentance as well as confession rituals in Indian Buddhism, repentance rituals eventually became widely practiced in China after the introduction and popularization of Buddhism, with a large number of liturgies being composed by various eminent Buddhist masters based on a diverse range of Buddhist scriptures.[1][2][3] Repentance rituals also later became an important part of the Buddhist ritual fields of Vietnam, Korea and Japan after the spread of Buddhism into the rest of the East Asian region.[4][5]

In modern times, this type of ritual remains highly popular across contemporary Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese Buddhism, with certain repentance rituals being performed on a frequent basis as part of regularly scheduled services in many temples.[6][7]

Background

Etymology

The word "repentance" in a Buddhist context is typically rendered as chanhui (懺悔) in Chinese. The same characters are read as zange or sange in Japanese, chamhoe in Korean and Sám Hối in Vietnamese. The word chanhui only started to be used to denote "repentance" from the year 300 onwards; before that, translations of Buddhist sūtras instead tended to use the Chinese term huiguo (悔過), read as keka in Japanese and hối quá in Vietnamese, meaning “repentance for trespasses”.[8][4][5] In addition, the term huizui (悔罪), meaning "repentance for sins" is also sometimes used in some texts.

According to the etymology provided by the eminent Tang dynasty (618-907) monk Yijing's commentary on the fifteenth volume of the Vinaya of the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition, chan and hui have two distinct meanings. The word chan derives from chanmo (懺摩), which is a transliteration of the Sanskrit term kṣama (क्षमा), meaning "forgiveness". The word hui is the Chinese transliteration of a Sanskrit compound composing of āpatti (आपत्ति), meaning "to commit a crime", and pratideśana (प्रतिदेशना), meaning "to confess".[9][10] According to the Sixth Patriarch of the Chan Buddhist tradition, Huineng (惠能, 638-713), as quoted in the Platform Sūtra, "chan is when one never does [evil]; hui is to know ones' past wrong".[3] The founder of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism, Zhiyi (智顗, 538-597), explained that chan means "stating and disclosing one's evil deeds" and that hui means "correcting the past and improving the future".[4] The academic Kai Sheng translates Zhiyi's explanation of the term chanhui which he provided in his work, the Shi Chan Boluomi Cidi Famen (釋禪波羅蜜 次第法門, lit: "Explanation of the Gradual Method of the Perfection of Dhyāna"):[3]

"What is “repentance” (chanhui)? Chan is to apologize to the Three Jewels and all sentient beings. Hui is to have remorse, correct faults and lament: “If I am to eliminate this transgression of mine, in the future I would rather lose my own life than ever create again such painful karma”. Just as a bhikṣu said to the Buddha, “I would rather embrace this blazing, great fire than ever dare to transgress against the pure precepts of the Thus Come One”. Generating this sort of attitude, solely wishing that Three Jewels will bear witness and accept one, is named “repentance” (chanhui 懺悔). Furthermore, chan is to not externally conceal [ones faults], and hui is to internally lay down the blame. Chan is to know that the transgression is wrong, and hui is to fear its retribution. There are many other [explanations of the meaning], so we will not go into detail here. To speak of the essential point, if one is able to know that phenomena are false, one can forever cease evil karma and cultivate the wholesome path. This is known as “repentance” (chanhui)."[3]

Classifications

Various eminent and influential Buddhist masters have written commentaries and works analyzing the significance of repentance practices as well as detailing various classification schemas for categorizing different types of repentances.

Zhiyi

Early springtime scenery at Guoqing Temple on Mount Tiantai in Zhejiang, China, which is an ancestral temple of both Chinese Tiantai and Japanese Tendai Buddhism. The pagoda in the distance was constructed in 598 by Emperor Yang of Sui to demonstrate his gratitude to the Tiantai Patriarch Zhiyi for conferring the Bodhisattva precepts upon him.

According to the Tiantai Patriarch Zhiyi, there are three types of repentance rituals:

  • Communal repentance (作法懺悔): Solely for Buddhist monks and nuns who have violated any of their precepts, except the four parajika offenses which entail expulsion from the sangha.[1][11] Usually held on the days of new and full moon or Uposatha, the precepts are recited according to the seven categories.[1][11] At the end of each category, the Buddhist monks and nuns are expected to confess if they have violated any of the precepts; otherwise, they remain silent.[1][11]
  • Visionary or auspicious sign repentance (觀相懺悔): Can be practiced by both monastics and lay people, especially when lay people want to undergo ordination with the Bodhisattva precepts of the Brahmajāla Sūtra.[1][11] For monastics, the bodhisattva precepts are transmitted last as part of their ordination.[1][11] This type of repentance is usually performed in order to receive the bodhisattva precepts or for purification purposes if a monastic or lay person has violated any of their precepts, except the five grave offenses.[1][11] This type of repentance is conducted is by focusing the mind and thought and seeing various signs with a pacified mind; it is usually performed in a mental state of meditation.[3] Many Āgama sūtras teach repentance by way of contemplating signs such as hells, poisonous snakes, the white mark (between the eyebrows) and others.[3] Many Mahāyāna dhāraṇī methods of practice also have this kind of repentance rite.[3]
  • Unborn or markless repentance (無生懺悔 or 無相懺悔): Cultivation of this form of repentance mostly entails giving rise to bodhicitta, having compassion for all sentient beings, and deeply examining the source of transgression to see that all dharmas, including the nature of one's transgression or offense, is itself empty and has no one to cling to.[1][11] According to both Zhiyi and the Chan Patriarch Huineng, this form of repentance could eradicate innumerable eons of past major transgressions.[1][11] Zhiyi provides several reasons for the nature of transgressions being empty: Firstly, all phenomena are originally empty of inherent existence, and it is sentient beings' unwholesome thinking and false attachments to the conditioned that give rise to the three poisons of ignorance, greed and aversion, which causes them commit countless transgressions.[3] Secondly, the mind itself is ultimately empty of inherent existence.[3] With neither seeing the mind nor seeing non-mind, there is nothing to contemplate and no contemplator, no object and no subject.[3] Thirdly, the fundamental nature of transgressions is empty of inherent existence.[3] This is because the mind and phenomena are empty, and so the transgressions that come about due to wrong attachment to conditioned phenomena are also empty in nature.[3]

Daoxuan

Full digitalized text of the Sifenü Biqiu Hanzhu Jieben (四分律比丘含注戒本, lit: "Annotated Precepts for Bhikṣus of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya") by the Nanshan Vinaya Patriarch Daoxuan. Printed in Hong Kong in 1941.

The famed Tang dynasty monk Daoxuan (道宣, 596–667), who was a Patriarch of the Nanshan Vinaya tradition (the Chinese lineage of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya tradition), also wrote about another classification schema with regards to repentance rites:[3]

  • Repentance by precepts (律懺): Solely for the Buddhist monastic community, this type of repentance is only performed with regards to violations of the monastic precepts and discipline codes in the Vinaya.[3] According to Daoxuan, the practice of this kind of repentance allows for a practitioner who has violated any precepts to return to the state of having first received the precepts.[3] During the rite, the names of transgressions should be formally recorded and stated; if one forgot, then it should be said that one does not recall.[3] If more than one transgressions are of the same type, they can be repented for in the same rite, whereas if they are of different types, they must be repented for in different rites.[3]
  • Repentance by Phenomena (事懺): Can be performed by both monastics and laity.[3] This type is cultivated by those with dull faculties who still practice with the notion of a self.[3] Daoxuan explains that this kind of repentance involves adorning and purifying a ritual space and extolling, praising as well as worshipping; either by making prostrations or chanting and circumambulating, exhausting one's sincerity towards superior objects (of worship).[3] In doing so, one's karma (which can be heavy or light, distinguished as fixed or not fixed) can either be transformed or lightened.[3] According to Daoxuan, if one clings to committing transgressions (experiences enjoyment when committing transgressions), then they should perform this type of repentance.[3] He further states that, if a monastic transgresses one of the five categories of monastic precepts, then they should perform both Repentance by Principle as well as Repentance by Phenomena.[3]
  • Repentance by Principle (理懺): Can be performed by both monastics and laity.[3] This type is cultivated by those with sharp faculties and is grounded on the contemplation of emptiness; by contemplating that oneself is absent of nature, one recognized that the false self also has no basis[3] Daoxuan expounds that there are three kinds of essentials for this type of repentance.[3] Firstly, phenomena are empty of nature and are not the self; the illumination of the mind using this principle is considered Theravāda.[3] Secondly, the original characteristic of phenomena is emptiness, merely falsely seen due to emotions; to illuminate using this principle is considered a small Bodhisattva.[3] Thirdly, phenomena do not originally exist as external elements, they are only cognition in reality. This principle is deep and profound and only known through the mind. It is that of a great Bodhisattva as well as the realization and practice of the fruition of the Buddhas.[3] According to Daoxuan, if one clings to meritorious deeds (experiences enjoyment when creating merit), then they should perform this type of repentance.[3] He further states that, if a monastic transgresses one of the five categories of monastic precepts, then they should perform both Repentance by Principle as well as Repentance by Phenomena.[3]

Guifeng Zongmi

Potrait of the Huayan and Chan Patriarch Guifeng Zongmi.

Another prominent Tang dynasty monk, Guifeng Zongmi (圭峰宗密, 780-841), who was a Patriarch of both the Chan and Huayan traditions, also classified repentance rites into three categories:[3]

  • Communal repentance (作法懺): Repents for transgressions that are to be restrained.[3]
  • Repentance by Phenomena (事懺): Zongmi cites scriptures to give examples of this type of repentance, including worshipping the Buddhas day and night as well as purifying the karmas of body, speech and mind so as to repent and clear obstructions.[3] Zongmi further states that this type of repentance removes transgressions, while Repentance by Principle removes doubts; Repentance by Phenomena removes the branches, while Repentance by Principle removes the roots.[3]
  • Repentance by Principle (理懺): According to Zongmi, repentance for ignorance can only be done through this type of repentance.[3] Zongmi states that it entails contemplating the mind as no-mind, arisen from delusions; if one wishes to repent, one should sit upright and be mindful of the true characteristics.[3] Zongmi also states that this type of repentance also entails contemplating that the nature of karma does not come from any of the ten directions and that the mind abides in the mind, born from delusions and does not abide in any external locations.[3] Zongmi further details that this type of repentance clears away doubt, while Repentance by Phenomena clears away transgressions; Repentance by Principle removes the roots, while Repentance by Phenomena removes the branches.[3]

Jinshui Jingyuan

The Daxiong Baodian of Gaoli Temple in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. This temple was under the abbacy of the Huayan Patriarch Jinshui Jingyuan when he oversaw the revival of Huayan Buddhism during the Song dynasty (960-1279).

Another classification schema is given by the Song dynasty (960-1279) Huayan Patriarch Jinshui Jingyuan (晉水淨源, 1011–1088), which the academic Kai Sheng translates as:[3]

  • Repentance of Subduing Karma (伏業懺): "According to the limited teachings of the Three Vehicles, during the first four sections of confession, [the karma] is subdued, and will not arise. This is what we call repentance. Once [the karma] has been disclosed, the original transgression will not increase and there is no transgression of concealing. What would have arisen [i.e., karmic fruits] will not arise. This is subduing."
  • Repentance of Turning Karma (轉業懺): "Repentance of turning karma is defined as the turning a long time (dīrghakālam) into a short time (alpam-kāla); employing light suffering to eliminate severe suffering; one who should be subject to rebirth among the three unfortunate paths aspires to compensate for it in the present life, and [thereby] not be subject to rebirth among the unfortunate paths."
  • Repentance of Eliminating Karma (滅業懺): "There must be clear observation and understanding, and deep generation of great bodhicitta; [recognizing that] from the beginningless past, there have been committed transgressions. It is like being in a dark room. Repentance and true wisdom are like a bright lamp. One shine of the lamp and the darkness all dissipates. There is much darkness when the lamp is rejected. Having misunderstood cause and effect, and made numerous faults, buddha-nature glows latent, thus it is like being in a dark room. Generating the fire of true wisdom, things are clearly illuminated; the illumination removes darkness, and one dispels the production of confusion and faults. All karma is thereby eliminated."

History and Practice

China

Han dynasty (3rd century BCE-3rd century CE)

Antecedents of repentance rites

Repentance rites originated from confession rituals, known as Uposatha, in Indian Buddhism.[1] According to the Pali Canon, this consisted of confessing one's offenses and reciting the Pāṭimokkha on the Uposatha days (full and new-moon days).[1] The purpose of the Uposatha, which were only to be held with at least four bhikkhus with no lay followers allowed, is to prevent the decline of the sangha communities.[1] The full ritual proceedings of the Uposatha consists of the preparation and the recitation of the Pāṭimokkha to be performed by an experienced and competent (or most senior) bhikkhu while the rest of the sangha members listen.[1]

Transmission to China

As early as the first century BCE before Buddhism was transmitted to China, several repentance scriptures in Sanskrit were already in circulation in India, with a key example being the Triskandhadharma Sūtra (三品悔過經), which was later translated to Chinese by the eminent monk Dharmarakṣa and constitutes a chapter in the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra.[1] Two of the earliest repentance scriptures translated into Chinese approximately in the middle of the second century CE are the Foshuo Asheshiwang Jing (佛說阿闍世王經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of King Ajātaśatru Sūtra") and the Foshuo Shelifu Huiguo Jing (佛說舍利弗悔過經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of Śāripūtra Repentance Sūtra").[1][5] Consequently, over the next four centuries, a total of sixty-one repentance scriptures were translated into Chinese.[1][5]

Northern and Southern dynasties to Tang dynasty (5th century-10th century)

Early repentance liturgies

By the time of the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–598), various repentance liturgies were in circulation in China. A few examples are the Zhong Jing Chanhui Miezui Fangfa Sanjuan (眾經懺悔滅罪方法三卷, lit: "Methods on Eradicating Transgression by Repentance from Various Sūtra in three fascicles"), which was compiled in 517 by the Liang dynasty monk Baochang (寶唱), and the Foshuo Foming Jing (佛說佛名經, lit: "Sūtra of the Names of the Buddhas"), which was compiled in 524 by the Northern Wei dynasty monk Bodhiruci (菩提流支). While the earliest Chinese translations used the word huiguo, to refer to "repentance", it gradually began to be superseded by the term chanhui from the start of the 5th century onwards.[4] By the Liang (502-557) and Chen dynasties (557-589), repentance texts were using all three terms: huiguo, chanhui and huizui, with chanhui eventually becoming the most popular term.[4]

A prominent example of a repentance rite that was composed during this period is the Cibei Daochang Chanfa (慈悲道場懺法, "Method of Repentance of the Compassionate Bodhimaṇḍa"), popularly known as the Liang Huang Bao Chan (梁皇寶懺, lit: "Jewelled Repentance of the Emperor of Liang"). Traditional accounts hold that this extensive ritual was originally composed on behalf of Emperor Wu of Liang (梁武帝, 464-549) by the eminent Chan Buddhist master Baozhi (寶志, 418-514), who is traditionally regarded as an emanation of the esoteric eleven-headed manifestation of the Bodhisattva Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) known as Shiyimian Guanyin. This ritual is based on the names of 1275 Buddha compiled from various Buddhist scriptures, such as the Lotus Sūtra, Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra, Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra and the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra. According to traditional records, Emperor Wu, who was historically renowned as a devout patron of Buddhism, was motivated to create the ritual for his deceased wife, Empress Wude. According to accounts, several months after Empress Wude died, Emperor Wu encountered a python in the palace which told him that it was the reincarnation of the Empress.[12] The python stated that the reason for its rebirth as an animal was that it had committed various karmically evil deeds as the Empress, and begged the Emperor to help it perform an act of merit so it could receive salvation.[12] The Emperor sought advice from monastics in his court and, upon receiving advice from Baozhi, either composed the ritual himself by searching through the Buddhist canon and extracting the names of the Buddhas or commissioned a group of monks to do so.[12] After the compilation and performance of the ritual, the Emperor was visited by a celestial being who revealed herself to be the former Empress and stated that she had been reborn in Trāyastriṃśa due to the merits generated by the ritual.[12] The ritual has remained highly popular in contemporary Chinese Buddhist practice and is frequently referred to as the "king of repentance rites" (懺法之王) among practitioners. In modern times, it is typically performed on an annual or even more frequent basis in most Chinese Buddhist temples, sometimes as part of a larger event like the Shuilu Fahui ceremony. This ritual is also performed in Vietnamese and Korean Buddhist practice, where it is typically referred to as the Lương Hoàng Sám and the Jabi Doryang Chambeop (자비도량참법) respectively.

This period also gave rise to one of the most influential figures in terms of the study and composition of repentance rituals: the eminent monk and founder of the Tiantai tradition, Zhiyi (智顗, 538-597). He wrote in great detail about the theory behind Buddhist repentance in his commentaries on the sūtras, even expounding a classification scheme for the different types of repentances. He also personally composed various repentance rites himself, which would later be extremely influential on the composition of other repentance rituals in later periods. One of the most famous and influential repentance rituals he wrote was the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi (法華三昧懺儀, lit: "Lotus Samādhi Repentance Ritual").[2][13] Zhiyi wrote this ritual in order to promote the cultivation of the Lotus Samādhi, which refers to a type of samādhi that practitioners can attain through practice of the Lotus Sūtra.[13] This type of samādhi was first developed by Nanyue Huisi (南嶽慧思, 515-577), who taught it to Zhiyi.[13] The Fahua Sanmei Chanyi (Japanese: Hokke Zanmai Sengi) would receive edits in later periods, and in modern times, it is still practiced by contemporary Chinese Tiantai monastics, Japanese Tendai monastics as well as Korean Seon monastics. The name of the ritual is often shortened to the Fahua Sanmei Chan (法華三昧懺, lit: "Lotus Samādhi Repentance"), Chinese and Hokke Senbō (法華懺法, lit: "Lotus Repentance Method") in Japanese and Beophwa Sammae Chambeop (법화삼매참법, lit: "Lotus Samādhi Repentance Method") in Korean. Another influential repentance ritual he wrote was the Jinguangming Chanfa (金光明懺法, lit: "Method of Repentance of Golden Light"), which was based on the Golden Light Sūtra.[14] This ritual would receive further supplementations during the Song dynasty (960-1279).[14]

Repentance liturgies and classification during the Sui and Tang dynasties
Full digitized copy of the ritual manual for the Cibei Sanmei Shui Chan (慈悲三昧水懺, lit: "Compassionate Samādhi Water Repentance") in three volumes by the Tang dynasty (618–907) monk Zhixuan, or Wuda Guoshi. Printed during the late Qing dynasty (1644-1912) between 1851 to 1911.

By the Sui dynasty (581–618), repentance rituals were so popular that they were also regularly performed by the imperial court. For instance, the Xu Gaoseng Zhuan (續高僧傳, lit: "Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks") by the eminent monk Daoxuan (道宣, 596–667), who was a Patriarch of the Nanshan Vinaya tradition, records that Emperor Wen of Sui (隋文帝, 541-604) performed repentance ceremonies whenever he hosted vegetarian feasts by personally holding the incense burner while his official Xiao Cong (萧琮, 558–607), who was previously the last Emperor of the Liang dynasty before being conquered by the Sui, provided him with guidance on how to manage affairs of state. Due to the growing popularity and number of repentance rituals, eminent Sui and Tang dynasty Buddhist masters and Patriarchs such as Zhiyi, Daoxuan and Huineng proposed several different schemes of classifying the different rites.[1][11]

Repentance rites continued to be composed during the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties. One prominent repentance ritual which was written during this period is the Cibei Sanmei Shui Chan (慈悲三昧水懺, lit: "Compassionate Samādhi Water Repentance"), which is traditionally attributed to the eminent monk Zhixuan (知玄, 811-884), also known as Wuda Guoshi (悟達國師, lit: "National Preceptor Wuda"), who was an imperial preceptor during the late-Tang dynasty.[11] According to the preface of the ritual manual for this rite that was written sometime between 995 to 997, Wuda was inspired to compose this rite due to a personal incident in his life. The preface records that Wuda was once acquainted with a monk who suffered from kāmalā disease (possibly meaning jaundice[15]). While other people despised this monk for his illness, Wuda lived beside him and often consulted with him. When they parted ways, the monk, who was moved by Wuda's moral character, told Wuda that if he were ever to face any difficulties, he should seek out the monk on Mount Chalong (near Mount Danjing) in Pengzhou in the province of Sichuan. Some time later, after he had gained renown as a Buddhist master, Wuda received an expensive gift of a dharma seat made of agarwood from the Tang Emperor Yingzong (唐懿宗, 833–873), upon which he developed a huge and painful human-faced tumour on his knee which no doctor was able to cure.[11] Remembering the monk's words, Wuda went to Mount Chalong to seek his aid, whereupon the monk instructed him to wash the tumour with water from a stream below a cliff.[11] When Wuda was about to wash the human-faced tumour, it cried out and spoke, revealing that it was the reincarnation of Chao Cuo (晁错, c.200–154 BC) and that Wuda was the reincarnation of Yuan Ang (袁盎, ?-148 BC), who were political enemies at the Han dynasty court (202 BC – 220 AD) during the Rebellion of the Seven States.[11] The tumour said that, because Yuan Ang was responsible for bringing about the death of Chao Cuo, Chao Cuo's reincarnations had been attempting to harm Yuan Ang's reincarnations for ten generations; Chao Cuo's reincarnations had failed in all the previous generations because Yuan Ang's reincarnations had all been monks with strict adherence to the precepts, but this time, Wuda was able to be harmed as his virtue had been damaged by a desire for fame which arose due to his being favoured by the Tang ruler.[11] The tumour also revealed that the monk who aided Wuda was the Arhat Venerable Kanaka (迦諾迦尊者), and said that it would no longer pursue Wuda as an enemy due to being washed by the water of samādhi. It then disappeared after Wuda washed it with the water.[11] Wuda was inspired by this event and, pondering regarding the accumulation of enmity over lifetimes and their dissolution, eventually composed the Cibei Sanmei Shui Chan in order to help people repent for their lifetimes of karmic enmity and transgressions.[11] The central theme of this ritual is to repent for one‘s three obstructions (of defilement, karmic deeds and retribution in the three lower realms of saṃsāra) which block one‘s spiritual progress to sagehood and rebirth in the realms of devas or humans, as well as for the six sense organs, unwholesome actions toward the Triple Gem, and retribution in the realms of humans and devas.[11] There are several ways to perform repentance with this text, each one corresponding to the faculties or abilities of the performer: recitation, recitation with prostration and visualization.[11] Recitation refers to reaching and chanting the liturgical text; recitation with prostration involves chanting the text as well as prostrating each time to a list of sixteen Buddhas and Bodhisattva that appear eight times throughout the liturgy; visualization involves formless repentance or visualization of the empty nature of transgressions.[11] This ritual later spread from China to Vietnam, where it is typically referred to as the Từ Bi Thủy Sám Pháp in Vietnamese.[11] In modern times, this ritual has remained highly popular in both Chinese Buddhist and Vietnamese Buddhist practice.[10][11]

This period also saw the composition and translation of two other notable texts that would later become especially important in the practice of repentance in daily liturgical services. The first is the Sanshiwu Foming Li Chan Wen (三十五佛名禮懺文, lit: "Repentance Text of the Names of the Thirty-Five Buddhas"), which was composed by the eminent esoteric Buddhist master and Patriarch of both the Chinese Zhenyan and Japanese Shingon tradition, Amoghavajra (不空, 705-774). This text is centered around the Thirty-five Confession Buddhas from the "Upāli-paripṛcchā" of the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra, and would later become incorporated with the names of the Fifty-Three Buddhas from the Bhaiṣajyarājabhaiṣajyasamudagatabodhisattvasūtra to form a composite repentance text called the Li Fo Da Chanhui Wen (禮佛大懺悔文, lit: "Great Repentance Text for Venerating the Buddhas") where homage is paid to a list of Eighty-Eight Buddhas. The practice of this text also later spread from China to Vietnam, where it is known as the Lễ Phật Đại Sám Hối Văn in Vietnamese. In modern times, it is still recited during regular liturgical services (known as chaomu kesong) in contemporary Chinese and Vietnamese Buddhist temples. The second text is known in Chinese as the Chanhui Wen (懺悔文, lit: "Repentance verse"), which consists of four verses that derive from the Gaṇdāvyūha Sūtra (which comprises the 39th chapter of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra); the same characters are read as Zange Mon in Japanese and Sám Hối Văn in Vietnamese.[5] This text is also integral to the regular liturgical services of Chinese, Japanese and Vietnamese Buddhism. For instance, in Chinese Buddhist temples, the text is embedded within the above-mentioned Li Fo Da Chanhui Wen that is recited during the evening liturgical sessions on even-numbered days; in many Japanese Buddhist temples affiliated with some traditions such as Shingon and Tendai, the text is recited by itself during the morning liturgical service. The verses read:

我昔所造諸惡業，皆由無始貪瞋癡，
從身語意之所生，一切我今皆懺悔。

Translation:

All the evil karma I have created in the past, all stemming from beginningless ignorance, greed and aversion,
And born from my body, speech and mind, I now repent for all of them.

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period to Yuan dynasty (10th century-14th century)

Song era Tiantai repentance compositions
Full digitalized text of the ritual manual for the Dabei Chan (大悲懺, lit: "Great Compassion Repentance") by the Song dynasty (960-1279) Tiantai Patriarch Siming Zhili. Written with gold ink and featuring illustrations. Printed during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912).

After the Tang dynasty, repentance rituals continued to be highly popular in the succeeding Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907-979) and Song dynasty (960–1279). In particular, repentance rituals became especially associated with the Tiantai tradition of Chinese Buddhism as many liturgies continued to be composed, practiced and promoted by renowned Tiantai specialists. A notable example was the eminent monk Ciyun Zunshi (慈雲遵式, 964–1032), who was renown as the "Master of Repentance" (懺主) due to his fame as a practitioner and composer of repentance rites.[3] During Zunshi's time, there were various liturgical variants of the same repentance rituals in circulation which differed in terms of some of their content.[3] Zunshi was critical of certain perceived issues between variants, and thus critically edited various repentance liturgies in order to corrected scribal errors as well as elucidate the original intentions of these rituals.[3] For instance, the only currently extant version of the Fahua Sanmei Chanyi that was originally composed by Zhiyi is an edition that was edited by Zunshi.[3] Zunshi also supplemented the Jinguangming Chanfa that was composed by Zhiyi by emphasizing the scattering of libations and chanting of mantras, establishing the purpose of requesting scriptures and the principles of repentance through practical experience and insight.[14] In doing so, he compiled the Jinguangming Chanfa Buzhu Yi (金光明懺法補助儀, lit: "Supplementary Manual to the Method of Repentance of Golden Light").[14] Zunshi also composed many rituals himself, with a notable example being the Wangsheng Jingtu Chanyuan Yi (往生淨土懺願儀, lit: "Repentance and Vow-making Ritual for Rebirth in the Pure Land"), which is commonly known by the shortened title of the Jingtu Chan (淨土懺, lit: "Pure Land Repentance").[16] This ritual was based on Mahāyāna sūtras that focused on the Pure Land. It was subsequently edited during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) also still practiced in modern Chinese Buddhism. Aside from editing and composing repentance liturgies, Zunshi was notable for being a great practitioner of repentance rituals, with historical records listing multiple specific performances of repentance rituals that he helped to lead.[3] As a result of his reputation, the Song Empress Dowager Zhangyi had him perform repentance for the state.[3] In addition, Zunshi was also notable for convening repentance gatherings and establishing regulations for the practice of repentance among laypeople, which helped to popularizing repentance practices outside of the monastic community.[3]

Another key example from the Tiantai tradition was the eminent monk and Twenty-Eighth Patriarch of the Tiantai tradition, Siming Zhili (四明知禮, 960-1028). Zhili is regarded by Chinese Buddhist tradition as an incarnation of Śākyamuni Buddha's son, Rāhula, due to an event detailed in some records relating to his birth where his mother only became pregnant with him after his father prayed to the Buddha for an heir and, in response, received a dream where an Indian monk presented him with a son while saying, “This is Lo-hou-lo [Rahula], the son of the Buddha.”[17] Zhili was a great devotee of Tiantai rites of penitence, having been known to practice a wide range of repentance rituals many times during his lifetime, in some cases performing them continuously over multiple years.[17] He is particularly notable for being the original composer of several famous repentance rituals. One of these rituals is the Qianshou Qianyan Dabeixin Zhou Xingfa (千手千眼大悲心咒 行法, lit: "Method of the Great Compassionate Heart Mantra of a Thousand Arms and Eyes"), which is more commonly known by the shortened title of the Dabei Chan (大悲懺, lit: "Great Compassion Repentance"). Zhili composed this ritual by centering it around the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī as well as Qianshou Guanyin, the esoteric thousand-armed form of the Bodhisattva Guanyin.[17][3] The structure of Zhili's original composition of the ritual was highly similar to that of Zhiyi's Fahua Sanmei Chanyi, with the main difference being the replacement of certain sections with ones invoking and chanting the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī.[18] In modern times, this ritual remains one of the most popular rites in the Chinese Buddhist ritual field, being performed at least once a month or more in most Chinese Buddhist temples.[6][10] Another notable repentance ritual composed by Zhili is the Jinguangming Zuisheng Chanyi (金光明最勝懺儀, lit: "Most Victorious Golden Light Repentance Ritual") which was based on the Golden Light Sūtra.[3][14] This ritual is also still performed in contemporary Chinese Buddhist practice.

Other Song era repentance compositions

Repentance rituals were also composed by monastics specializing in other Buddhist traditions. One particularly prominent example is the Tantric Buddhist master Akṣobhyavajra, known in Chinese as Budong Jingang (不動金剛, lit: "Immovable Vajra") as well as Ganlu Dashi (甘露大師, lit: "Great Master of Amṛta").[19][20][21] According to historiographical records, he was an Indian monk who originally travelled to the Western Xia and resided at a temple there before later moving to Mount Meng in Sichuan.[20][21] Accounts state that he compiled a repentance text that would eventually become widely practiced called the Li Fo Da Chanhui Wen (禮佛大懺悔文, lit: "Great Repentance Text for Venerating the Buddhas"), also known as the Eighty-Eight Buddhas Great Repentance Text.[20] According to his biography, Budong compiled this repentance text by combining the names of the Thirty-Five Buddhas from Amoghavajra's Sanshiwu Foming Li Chan Wen together with the names of the Fifty-Three Buddhas from the Bhaiṣajyarājabhaiṣajyasamudagatabodhisattvasūtra. After its compilation, this text would later be included in many subsequent influential liturgical compilations, especially from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) onwards to the present day.[22] As a result, it is still recited on all even-numbered days as part of the evening liturgical service in most modern Chinese Buddhist temples.

Another notable example is the eminent monk Jinshui Jingyuan (晉水淨源, 1011–1088), who is traditionally regarded as either the Seventh or Tenth Patriarch of the Huayan tradition. He composed several Huayan-oriented repentance rites based on multiple scriptures such as the Śūraṅgama Sūtra and the Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment, of which four remain extant.[23] Some of the rituals he composed were based on or influenced by earlier liturgies from other monastics such as the earlier Tang dynasty era Huayan and Chan Patriarch, Guifeng Zongmi (圭峰宗密, 780-841). Jingyuan also further created a new classification schema of categorizing repentance practices into three different types.

Yuan dynasty repentance rituals

The popularity of repentance rituals did not subside under the succeeding Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), with repentance rituals continuing to be performed as part of regular monastic practice.[18] For instance, the Zengxiu Jiaoyuan Qinggui (增修教苑清規, lit: "Revised Rules of Purity for Jiao temples"), a set of monastic codes for temples under the Jiao classification (教, encompassing various Buddhist traditions based heavily on scriptures such as Tiantai and Huayan) published in 1347 by the Tiantai monk Ziqing (自慶) specifically lists the Dabei Chan composed by Zhili as a practice for the monastic community to perform on the 20th of the fourth month.[18] In addition, Ziqing also drew diagrams detailing the ritual layout for repentance rites.[18] According to the Zengxiu Jiaoyuan Qinggui, a performance of the Dabei Chan should proceed as follows: The day before the 20th of the fourth month, an attendant of the overseer or precentor (維那) informs the congregation of monks about the ritual by hanging up a plaque giving notice for the repentance rite.[18] Monks are instructed to lay out prayer cushions, while the overseer's attendant prepares hand warmers, candlesticks, and scattered flowers, placing them on a small table before the main practitioner.[18] On the morning of the initiation, the hall bell is rung, and the congregation stands in their positions according to the prescribed order provided in Ziqing's diagram in order of seniority.[18] The diagram also lists the necessary and ritual implements, such as bells, clappers, muyu, mallets, chimes, cymbals, and drums.[18]

As another example, the Jin dynasty (1115-1234) layman Wang Zicheng (王子成) compiled a repentance liturgy dedicated to the Buddha Amituofo (Amitābha) titled the Linian Mituo Daochang Chanfa (禮念彌陀道場懺法, "Repentance Method at the Bodhimaṇḍa for the Veneration and Rememberance of Amituofo").[24] In 1332, during the Yuan dynasty, a Cheontae monk named Uiseon (義璇) from the Korean Goryeo dynasty (918-1392), who was appointed the abbot of a temple in the Yuan capital of Dadu by the Yuan imperial court, raised funds to print and circulate this ritual manual.[25]

Ming dynasty to Present (13th century-21th century)

Performances and codification under the Ming and Qing dynasties
Full digitalized text of a 1900 edition of the Chanmen Risong (禪門日誦), a popular compilation of liturgical texts for various daily and regular ritual services that was first printed during the Qing dynasty (1644-1912) and has since been regularly used up to the present. In terms of repentance rites, this manual contains both the text for the Dabei Chan as well as the Li Fo Da Chanhui Wen.

Repentance rituals continued to be a regular part of the Chinese Buddhist ritual field in the succeeding Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties.[22] A wide range of repentance rituals were practiced across all strata of society, from monastics to members of the imperial family to commoners, and historical accounts proliferate with records of performances.[22] A notable example is the eminent Ming dynasty monk Youxi Chuandeng (幽溪傳燈, 1554–1628), who is traditionally regarded as the Thirtieth Patriarch of the Tiantai tradition.[26] As part of his efforts to revitalize Tiantai (which had been in decline by the start of his career as a monk), Chuandeng vigorously engaged in practicing various repentance rituals. For instance, he once made a vow to build a Śūrangama Altar (楞嚴檀), which is an altar that follows the specifications laid out in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra.[26] Upon the completion of the altar, he immediately began to hold one-hundred-day Śūraṃgama Samādhi retreats there every year until his death.[26] Before the start of each retreat, the previous twenty-one days were dedicated to the performance of several types of rituals, one of which was repentance rituals.[26] In addition, Chuandeng was also recorded as having been frequently invited to perform the Fahua Sanmei Chan (composed by Zhiyi) and the Dabei Chan (composed by Zhili) on multiple occasions, sometimes consecutively for several years.[26] During his later years, Chuandeng was also recorded as having frequently performed the Mituo Bao Chan (彌陀寶懺, lit: "Jewelled Repentance of Amituofo").[26] Another example is the eminent monastic and Eighth Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land tradition, Yunqi Zhuhong (雲棲袾宏, 1535–1615), who was recorded as having led performances of twelve complete sessions of the Liang Huang Bao Chan as part of a pacification ceremony to pacify tiger attacks on Mount Yunqi in Hangzhou, following which the attacks subsided.[27][28][22] Another example is an official named Yu Chunxi (虞淳熙, 1553-1621), who was the vice-director of the bureau of records of the Ministry of Official Personnel, was recorded as having recited the Liang Huang Bao Chan together with his friends after succeeding in the provincial examinations.[22] Multiple instances of laypeople either practicing repentance rituals or commissioning monks to perform them to prepare for the end of their lives are also documented in historical records.[22] Imperial support and patronage of repentance rituals is exemplified by an officially sanctioned preface to Wuda's Cibei Sanmei Shui Chan that was written by the Ming Yongle Emperor (永樂帝, 1360-1424), which is translated into English by the academic Kai Sheng as: "Samādhi exists only in people’s minds and needs not be sought anywhere else. We have written this piece to place it at the beginning of the work. Also, the work is going to be committed to print, as a means to benefit the world. This is drawing on the ocean of samādhis to spread over the worlds as many as the sands of the Ganges and wash out the eons as many as all the atoms in the universe. Those who read this work, I suppose, would become cautious about their conducts."[22]

Repentance rituals also became formally entrenched in monastic codes and regulations. A key example of this relates to the Li Fo Da Chanhui Wen that was compiled by Budong Jingang during the Song dynasty.[22] This repentance text was codified as part of the daily evening liturgical service across Chinese Buddhist temples in the Zhujing Risong Jiyao (諸經日誦集要, lit: "Compilation of Essentials for the Daily Chanting of Various Sūtras"), which is a liturgical compilation that was critically revised and edited by the Eighth Chinese Pure Land Patriarch, Yunqi Zhuhong (雲棲袾宏, 1655-1615), and later reprinted by the Ninth Chinese Pure Land Patriarch and Thirty-First Tiantai Patriarch, Ouyi Zhixu (蕅益智旭, 1599-1655).[22] The placement of this repentance text in the daily liturgy was subsequently included in most later influential Buddhist liturgical compilations for daily liturgical sessions that were collated during the Qing dynasty (1644-1912) and Republican (1912-1949) eras, eventually becoming standardized as part of the common repertoire chanted by monks, nuns, and laity.[22] Two examples of such liturgical compilations that include the mantras and which are still widely used in contemporary times are the Chanmen Risong (禪門日誦; lit: "Daily Chants of the Chan Gate") and the Fomen Bibei (佛門必備課誦本, lit: "Book of Essential Chants of the Buddhist Gate").[22] This text is still chanted on all even-numbered days during evening liturgical services in most modern Chinese Buddhist temples.

New compositions under the Ming and Qing dynasties
Full digitalized text of the ritual manual for the Dizang Bao Chan (地藏寶懺, lit: "Jewelled Repentance of Dizang") by the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) Chinese Pure Land and Tiantai Patriarch Ouyi Zhixu. Printed in 1921 during the Republican period (1912-1949).

New repentance rituals also continued to be composed and existing ones edited by various eminent monks across multiple Buddhist traditions. For instance, the eminent Ming dynasty monk Ouyi Zhixu (蕅益智旭, 1599–1655), who was a Patriarch of both the Chinese Pure Land and Tiantai traditions, composed a repentance ritual centered around the Bodhisattva Dizang (Kṣitigarbha) called the Dizang Bao Chan (地藏寶懺, lit: "Jewelled Repentance of Dizang") which received further edits during the Qing dynasty.[29] Another example is the Yaoshi Bao Chan (藥師寶懺; lit: "Jewelled Repentance of Yaoshi"), a repentance ritual centered around the Buddha Yaoshi (Bhaiṣajyaguru) which is traditionally attributed to the eminent early Qing dynasty monk Jianyue Duti (見月讀體, 1601–1679), who was a Vinaya specialist and the abbot of Longchang Temple on Mount Baohua.[18][30] This ritual's liturgy also received further edits later, most notably by the Tiantai monk Shou Deng (受登, 1607–1675).[31] Both these examples, along with numerous other repentance rituals composed and edited during this period (based on a wide range of Buddhist scriptures and deities such as the Diamond Sūtra and Cundī), are also still performed in modern Chinese Buddhist practice.

Modern practice
See also: Fanbai
Full digitalized text of a modern liturgical collection consisting of the ritual texts of six common Chinese Buddhist repentance rituals: the Liang Huang Bao Chan, the Cibei Sanmei Shui Chan, the Dabei Chan, the Yaoshi Bao Chan, the Jingtu Chan and the Dizang Bao Chan. Published in 2003 in Beijing, China.

Repentance rituals continued to be composed well into the Republican period (1912-1949). One notable example is Venerable Kuanru (寬如法師, ?-1979), a notable bhikkhunī who was a disciple of the influential Chan Patriarch Xuyun (虛雲,1840-1959) as well as a director of the Hong Kong Buddhist Association. She composed several repentance rituals, one of which was the Da Foding Shoulengyan Chanhui Xingfa (大佛頂首楞嚴懺悔行法, lit: "Method of Practicing the Repentance of the Śūraṅgama of the Great Buddha's Uṣṇīṣa"), also simply referred to as the Lengyan Chan (楞嚴懺, lit: "Śūraṅgama Repentance"). This ritual was based on the Śūraṅgama Sūtra and is still practiced in many Chinese Buddhist temples, especially some temples affiliated with the prominent Chan master Venerable Hsuan Hua (宣化, 1918-1995) and the international organization he founded, the Dharma Realm Buddhist Association (DBRA).

In modern times, repentance rituals remain a significant part of the Chinese Buddhist ritual field throughout China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia and other overseas Chinese communities. It is typically performed and conducted through the use of fanbai, which is a type of Chinese Buddhist chanting style that is traditionally orally transmitted through a lineage of monastics, usually to the accompaniment of special Buddhist dharma instruments such as the muyu (木魚, a wooden fish widely used as a percussion instrument), the yinqing (引磬, a type of hand bell) and the dangzi (鐺子, a small handheld gong). During many repentance rites, worshippers usually kneel on special cushions known as baidian (拜垫) with the corresponding liturgical text open on a table in front of them while chanting, although some section(s) of some rituals may also require them to stand or circumambulate. Many repentance rituals also contain section(s) where lists of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and Arhats are invoked and taken refuge in, and worshippers who are physically capable usually prostrate themselves in reverence and devotion on the baidian during these sections. In contemporary Chinese Buddhist practice, the Li Fo Da Chanhui Wen is recited on even-numbered days in most temples as part of the evening liturgical service, and the many various different repentance rituals such as the Dabei Chan are typically practiced throughout the year at temples, sometimes as regularly scheduled independent rituals and other times as part of larger events such as the Shuilu Fahui ceremony or celebrations during holy days associated with certain Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Japan

Asuka period (6th-8th century)

Repentance rituals were first introduced to Japan with the introduction of Buddhism during the Asuka period (538-710). According to the Nihon Shoki, the first repentance ritual ever performed in Japan took place during the rule of Empress Kōgyoku (皇極天皇, 594–661) in 642.[32] In this case, this ritual was executed with the purpose of producing rain.[32] According to the records, lower rank priests from different villages had performed sacrifices to the gods requesting rain, but were unsuccessful.[32] The statesman Soga no Emishi (蘇我蝦夷, 587-645) then suggested the performance of repentance rituals and the reading of Buddhist sūtras to pray for rain.[32]

Nara and Heian periods (8th-14th century)

More repentance rituals continued to be either composed in or transmitted to Japan in the succeeding Nara (710-794) and Heian (794-1331) eras, and they were regularly sponsored by the imperial court. One notable example of a repentance ritual from this period is the Yakushi Keka (薬師悔過, lit: "Repentance of Yakushi"), which is centered around the Buddha Yakushi (Bhaiṣajyaguru). This ritual was performed by the imperial courts of both the Nara period and the first half of the Heian period for a diverse range of purposes, including to to purify the people from sin, to pray on behalf of a deceased Emperor, and to expel the demons of drought, pestilence and famine.[4] For instance, on separate occasions in 833, 837 and 841 under the reign of Emperor Ninmyō (仁明天皇, 808–850), famous temples throughout Japan were ordered to conduct tendoku (転読, a ritual where monastics or priests turn the pages of a sūtra and reads selective parts of it) of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra in the morning and the Yakushi Keka at night over several days in order to alleviate epidemics.[4][33] Another prominent example of a repentance ritual from the Nara and Heian periods is the Kichijō Keka (吉祥悔過, lit: "Repentance of Kichijō"), which is centered around the Buddhist deity Kichijōten (Śrīmahādevī) and based on the Golden Light Sūtra.[32] The Nihon Shoki suggests that this ritual was first instituted by Empress Kōken (孝謙天皇, 718–770), who was also an ordained bhikkhunī, with the Shoku Nihongi even recording an instance where the Empress personally performed the ritual within her palace.[32] In modern times, this ritual is still performed in contemporary Japanese Buddhist practice at Hōryū-ji and Yakushi-ji, typically in January.[32] Another famous repentance ritual that was composed during the reign of Empress Kōken was the Juichimen Keka (十一面悔過法, lit: "Repentance of Jūichimen"), which is centered around Jūichimen Kannon, the esoteric eleven headed manifestation of the Bodhisattva Kannon (Avalokiteśvara). This repentance ritual was composed by the eminent Kegon monk Jitchū (実忠, ?-824) around 752, and forms the basis for the two-week long ceremony called the Shuni-e (修二会; lit: "Second-Month Service") that still takes place annually at Tōdai-ji in modern times. According to the Nigatsu-dō Engi Enmaki (二月堂縁起絵巻, lit: "Handscroll of the Origins of Nigatsu-dō"), Jitchū was training on Mount Kasagi in 751 when he discovered a cave and entered it. The cave led him to the Buddhist heavenly realm of Tushita where devas reside. There, in the cave, he observed 49 shrines of devotion to various Buddhist figures, and devas frantically running between shrines over and over to pay obeisance and make offerings. One particularly grand shrine was devoted to the Bodhisattva Kannon, in his eleven-headed form as Jūichimen Kannon, surrounded by beings taking part in a grand repentance ritual. Jitchū was so moved by the ceremony, he asked one of the devas if he could take part, but told that one day in Tushita would be equivalent to 400 years in the human realm.[34][35] However, Jitchū resolved to reproduce the ceremony anyway, and after further adventures, establishes the Shuni-e rite, devoted to Jūichimen Kannon. During the Shuni-e, the Juichimen Keka is carried out over six sessions corresponding to the six periods of the day: nitchū (日中, lit: "Middle of day"), nichimotsu (日没, lit: "End of day"), shoya (初夜, lit: "Start of night"), hanya (半夜, lit: "Middle of night"), goya (後夜, lit: "Back of night") and jinjō (晨朝, lit: "Morning").

Unlike in China, where the word chanhui was already in use to refer to repentance by the Liang dynasty period (502-557), the equivalent Japanese term sange only started to be used to refer to repentance in historical Japanese annals from the year 838 onwards.[4] The first usage of the term was with reference to to a ritual known as the Butsumyo Sange (仏名懺悔, lit: "Repentance of the Names of the Buddhas"), also popularly known as the Butsumyo-e (仏名会, lit: "Assembly of the Names of the Buddhas").[36][4] While this ritual actually first began to be performed in 774, records state that Emperor Ninmyō (仁明天皇, 808-850) "began to pay reverence" to the sūtra that the ritual was based on in 838, and instituted it as a regular ritual at the imperial court in 838.[36][4] The ritual involves chanting and venerating the names of 3,000 Buddhas in order to repent and eliminate sins for the year.[36][4] In 846, an order was issued for it to be held in various provinces as well, and it continues to be performed in contemporary Japanese Buddhist practice by temples affiliated with various traditions such as Jōdo-shū, Tendai and Kegon.[36][4]

During the Heian era, the Chinese Tiantai tradition was transmitted from China to Japan by eminent monastics who were sent on expeditions to Tang China by the Japanese imperial court, forming the Japanese Tendai tradition.[4] After the founding of Tendai, Tiantai repentance rituals began to be performed in Japan as well.[4] One of the most popular of these rituals is the Hokke Zanmai Sengi (Chinese: Fahua Sanmei Chanyi) originally composed by Zhiyi, which is commonly referred to in Japanese as the Hokke Senbō (法華懺法, lit: "Lotus Repentance Method"). This ritual was first performed in Japan by the eminent monk Ennin (圓仁, 793-864), also known as Jikaku Daishi (慈覺大師, lit: "Great Master Compassionate Awakening"), who was the third head of the Tendai order in Japan.[4] Records state that he first performed the ritual in 829 on Mount Hiei, which is where the Tendai headquarters of Enryaku-ji is located. Special halls called a Hokke-dō (法華堂, lit: "Lotus Hall") were built for the practice of the Hokke Senbō and the cultivation of Lotus Samādhi. The first known example of such a hall built for this purpose is the Hokke-dō that was built at Enryaku-ji in 848; it was built together and connected with another hall called the Jōgyō-Zanmai-dō (常行三昧堂, lit: "Hall of Constantly Walking Samādhi") that was used for practicing the Constantly Walking Samādhi (another type of samādhi expound by Zhiyi) while chanting the nembutsu.[4] The Hokke Senbō of Mount Hiei took place at either at night (from 12am to 3am) or in the morning.[4] In modern Tendai practice, some sections of the full Hokke Senbō has also been incorporated into the daily liturgy (known as the gongyō or o-tsutome) where they are typically performed as part of the morning service.[37] The Hokke Senbō is also frequently performed as part of Tendai funerary observances.[38]

Major Examples

Major Chinese language Repentance Scriptures and Ritual Liturgies
# Chinese title English Translation Tripitaka No.[39] Author Date
1. Cibei Daochang Chanfa (慈悲道場懺法) Method of Repentance of the Compassionate Bodhimaṇḍa T45n1909 Various eminent monks of the Liang dynasty 464-549 CE
2. Fahua Sanmei Chanyi (法華三昧懺儀) Lotus Samādhi Repentance Ritual T46n1941 Zhiyi (Composer)

Ciyun Zunshi (Editor)

538-597 CE (Composition)

964–1032 CE (Edit)

3. Sanshiwu Foming Li Chan Wen (三十五佛名禮懺文) Repentance Text of the Names of the Thirty-Five Buddhas T12n0326 Amoghavajra 705–774 CE
4. Cibei Sanmei Shui Chan (慈悲三昧水懺) Compassionate Samādhi Water Repentance T45n1910 Zhixuan 811-884 CE
5. Wangsheng Jingtu Chanyuan Yi (往生淨土懺願儀) Repentance and Vow-making Ritual for Rebirth in the Pure Land T47n1984 Ciyun Zunshi 964–1032 CE
6. Jinguangming Zuisheng Chanyi (金光明最勝懺儀) Most Victorious Golden Light Repentance Ritual T46n1946 Siming Zhili 960–1028 CE
7. Qianshou Qianyan Dabeixin Zhou Xingfa (千手千眼大悲心咒 行法) Method of the Great Compassionate Heart Mantra of a Thousand Arms and Eyes X74n1480 Siming Zhili (Composer)

Jianyue Duti (Editor)

960–1028 CE (Composition)

1601-1679 CE (Edit)

8. Linian Mituo Daochang Chanfa (禮念彌陀道場懺法) Repentance Method at the Bodhimaṇḍa for the Veneration and Rememberance of Amituofo X74n1467 Wang Zicheng 1115-1234 CE
9. Zanli Dizang Pusa Chanyuan Yi (讚禮地藏菩薩懺願儀) Repentance and Vow-making Ritual for Praising and Venerating Dizang Bodhisattva X74n1486 Ouyi Zhixu 1599-1655 CE
10. Cibei Dizang Pusa Chanfa (慈悲地藏菩薩懺法) Method of Repentance of the Compassionate Dizang Bodhisattva X74n1487 Unknown 1644-1912 CE
11. Cibei Yaoshi Bao Chan (慈悲藥師寶懺) Jewelled Repentance of the Compassionate Yaoshi X74n1484 Shou Deng (Editor) 1607–1675 (Edit)

See also

References

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  2. ^ a b Kai Sheng. (2020). Faith and lifestyle of Buddhists in the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties. In A history of Chinese Buddhist faith and life (pp. 170–362). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004431775_004
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw Sheng, K. (2020). Buddhist faith and activities in the Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368). In A history of Chinese Buddhist faith and life (pp. 363–439). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004431775_005
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "Ancient Buddhism in Japan, sutras and ceremonies in use in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. and their history in later times | WorldCat.org". search.worldcat.org. Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  5. ^ a b c d e Nguyen, Hanh Thi Minh (2022). An analytical study of the Procedure and Protocol of Performing Repentance Throughout the Six Divisions of the Day compiled by Trần Thái Tông (r. 1225-1258) (Doctor of Philosophy in Religious Studies thesis). University of the West.
  6. ^ a b "The Water -Land Dharma Function Platform ritual and the Great Compassion Repentance ritual - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. ProQuest 304764751. Retrieved 2025-04-08.
  7. ^ 星雲大師 (主編). (2022). 佛光山傳燈學院教材 (全八冊). 佛光文化. ISBN 978-9860785548.
  8. ^ Marran, C. (2013). 懺悔 Zange/Confession. Review of Japanese Culture and Society 25, 33-42. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/roj.2013.0022.
  9. ^ 星雲大師 (主編). (2022). 佛光山傳燈學院教材 (全八冊). 佛光文化. ISBN 978-9860785548.
  10. ^ a b c "The Chinese Buddhist Cultus: Common Public Rituals in PRC Monasteries Today". Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies. 2022-05-05. Retrieved 2025-11-06.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Hong, De (2011). A study and translation of Compassionate Water Repentance Ritual (Master of Arts in Religious Studies thesis). University of the West.
  12. ^ a b c d "慈悲道場懺法/傳 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館". zh.wikisource.org (in Traditional Chinese). Retrieved 2025-11-27.
  13. ^ a b c Shi Xingying 釋性穎. 'Tiantai fahua sanmei zhi tanjiu - yi huisi zhiyi wei zhongxin' 天台「法華三昧」之探究 —以慧思、智顗為中心. 2009. [Graduation thesis for the Yuan Kuang Institute of Buddhist Studies, 圓光佛學研究所]. https://www.ykbi.edu.tw/addpage/thesis/data95/thesis_95_1.pdf
  14. ^ a b c d e "天台《金光明經》懺悔思想之研究─以智顗、遵式、知禮為中心__臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統". ndltd.ncl.edu.tw. Retrieved 2025-12-29.
  15. ^ "NTI Reader". ntireader.org. Retrieved 2026-02-06.
  16. ^ 陳孟卿（2012）。慈雲遵式《往生淨土懺願儀》之研究。﹝碩士論文。南華大學﹞臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統。 https://hdl.handle.net/11296/azxzbn。
  17. ^ a b c Yü, Chün-fang (2001). Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara. Columbia University Press. JSTOR 10.7312/yu--12028.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i 釋育恆 (2017). 四明知禮《大悲心呪行法》之研究 (thesis thesis) (in Chinese (Taiwan)).
  19. ^ "蒙山施食研究－歷史發展與當代台灣的實踐__臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統". ndltd.ncl.edu.tw. Retrieved 2025-12-30.
  20. ^ a b c Lye, Hun Yeow. Feeding Ghosts: A Study of the Yuqie Yankou Rite. University of Virginia, Department of Religious Studies, PHD (Doctor of Philosophy), 2003-08-01, https://doi.org/10.18130/V3S82Z.
  21. ^ a b Dunnell, Ruth W. (1996). The Great State of White and High: Buddhism and State Formation in Eleventh-Century Xia. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1719-0.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Sheng, K. (2020). Buddhist faith and lifestyles in the Ming and Qing dynasties. In A history of Chinese Buddhist faith and life (pp. 440–558). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004431775_006 Brill
  23. ^ McBride, Richard D. (2020-01-02). "Ŭich'ŏn, Jingyuan, and ritual repentance in the revival of Huayan Buddhism in the Northern Song period". Studies in Chinese Religions. 6 (1): 49–80. doi:10.1080/23729988.2020.1763677. ISSN 2372-9988.
  24. ^ Sørensen, Henrik (1991). "A bibliographical survey of buddhist ritual texts from Korea". Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie. 6 (1): 159–200. doi:10.3406/asie.1991.980.
  25. ^ 許正弘 (著)=Hsu; Cheng-hung (au.) (December 2010). "元．高麗僧義璇生平事跡考=A Study on the Life of Yi-Xuan, a Korean Buddhist Monk in the Yuan Dynasty". 中華佛學研究=Chung-Hwa Buddhist Studies (in Chinese) (11): 45–75.
  26. ^ a b c d e f Ma, Yung-fen (2011). "The Revival of Tiantai Buddhism in the Late Ming: On the Thought of Youxi Chuandeng (1554-1628)". doi:10.7916/D81G0T8P. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  27. ^ 《雲棲法彙（選錄）》卷17：「村之民怪其能久居也。環村四十里。歲傷於虎者不下二十人。而雞犬不與焉。宏乃發悲懇。諷經千卷。設瑜伽施食津濟之。自是虎不傷人。」(CBETA 2025.R1, J33, no. B277, p. 97a28-b1)
  28. ^ 《雲棲法彙（選錄）》卷25：「村多虎。環山四十里。歲傷不下數十人。居民最苦之。師發悲懇。為諷經施食。虎患遂以寧。」(CBETA 2025.R1, J33, no. B277, p. 194c11-13)
  29. ^ McGuire, B. F. (2014). Repentance rituals for eliminating karma. In Living karma: The religious practices of Ouyi Zhixu (pp. 53–??). Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/mcgu16802-005
  30. ^ 鄭雅文（釋開然） (2018). 《慈悲藥師寶懺》的思想與實踐研究 (thesis thesis) (in Chinese (Taiwan)).
  31. ^ 釋育恆 (2017). 四明知禮《大悲心呪行法》之研究 (thesis thesis) (in Chinese (Taiwan)).
  32. ^ a b c d e f g Gerhart, Karen M. (2018-06-12). Women, Rites, and Ritual Objects in Premodern Japan. BRILL. doi:10.1163/9789004368194_006. ISBN 978-90-04-36819-4.
  33. ^ Hideo, SUZUKI (March 2012). "Medical writings in "Syoku-Nihon-Kouki"". Journal of Osaka Kawasaki Rehabilitation University. 6: 81–100. ISSN 1881-509X.
  34. ^ Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. p. 168-169. ISBN 0-231-11286-6.
  35. ^ Time difference is also cited in the Theravada Pali Canon, in the Visakhuposatha Sutta (AN 8.43)
  36. ^ a b c d "仏名会". WEB版新纂浄土宗大辞典 (in Japanese). Retrieved 2025-12-27.
  37. ^ Prosser, Don JION 慈温 (2007-01-01). "Tendai Gongyo Daily Practice". Tendai Daily Practice.
  38. ^ Walter, Mariko N. (2008-08-20). "The Structure of Japanese Buddhist Funerals". University of Hawaii Press eBooks. doi:10.21313/HAWAII/9780824832049.003.0008.
  39. ^ If listing starts with 'T' and followed by number then it can be found in the Taisho Tripitaka; if listing starts with 'M' and followed by number then it can be found in the Manjizoku Tripitaka; If listing starts with 'B' and followed by number then it can be found in the Supplement to the Great Tripitaka

Chinese Buddhism

Dabei Chan

Yaoshi Bao Chan

Liang Huang Bao Chan

By the Buddhist Compassion Zhi Ye Foundation:

By the Fo Guang Shan Buddhist Choir, a Buddhist musical group that records traditional fanbai chants affiliated with Fo Guang Shan:

Lengyan Bao Chan

Cibei Sanmei Shui Chan

Dizang Bao Chan

Fahua Sanmei Chan

Japanese Buddhism

Juichimen Keka

Butsumyo-e

Korean Buddhism

Jabi Doryang Chambeop

Beophwa Sammae Chambeop

Vietnamese Buddhism

Lương Hoàng Sám

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