Arginine

Arginine
Skeletal formula of arginine
Skeletal formula of arginine
Names
IUPAC names
Arginine
Other names
2-Amino-5-guanidinopentanoic acid
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
1725411, 1725412 D, 1725413 L
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
DrugBank
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.738 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • L: 230-571-3
364938 D
KEGG
MeSH Arginine
RTECS number
  • L: CF1934200 L
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C6H14N4O2/c7-4(5(11)12)2-1-3-10-6(8)9/h4H,1-3,7H2,(H,11,12)(H4,8,9,10)/t4-/m0/s1 checkY
    Key: ODKSFYDXXFIFQN-BYPYZUCNSA-N checkY
  • D/L: Key: ODKSFYDXXFIFQN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • D: Key: ODKSFYDXXFIFQN-SCSAIBSYSA-N
  • L: C(C[C@@H](C(=O)O)N)CNC(=N)N
  • D/L: C(CC(C(=O)O)N)CNC(=N)N
  • D: C(C[C@H](C(=O)O)N)CNC(=N)N
  • L HCl: [Cl-].NC(CCCNC(N)=[NH2+])C([O-])=O
  • L Zwitterion: NC(CCCNC(N)=[NH2+])C([O-])=O
Properties
C6H14N4O2
Molar mass 174.204 g·mol−1
Appearance White crystals
Odor Odourless
Melting point 260 °C; 500 °F; 533 K
Boiling point 368 °C (694 °F; 641 K)
14.87 g/100 mL (20 °C)
Solubility slightly soluble in ethanol
insoluble in ethyl ether
log P −1.652
Acidity (pKa) 2.18 (carboxyl), 9.09 (amino), 13.8 (guanidino)
Thermochemistry
232.8 J K−1 mol−1 (at 23.7 °C)
250.6 J K−1 mol−1
−624.9–−622.3 kJ mol−1
−3.7396–−3.7370 MJ mol−1
Pharmacology
B05XB01 (WHO) S
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS07: Exclamation mark
Warning
H319
P305+P351+P338
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
5110 mg/kg (rat, oral)
Safety data sheet (SDS) L-Arginine
Related compounds
Related alkanoic acids
Related compounds
Supplementary data page
Arginine (data page)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Arginine is the amino acid with the formula (H2N)(HN)CN(H)(CH2)3CH(NH2)CO2H. The molecule features a guanidino group appended to a standard amino acid framework. At physiological pH, the carboxylic acid is deprotonated (−CO2−) and both the amino and guanidino groups are protonated, resulting in a cation. Only the l-arginine (symbol Arg or R) enantiomer is found naturally.[1] Arg residues are common components of proteins. It is encoded by the codons CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, and AGG.[2] The guanidine group in arginine is the precursor for the biosynthesis of nitric oxide.[3] Like all amino acids, it is a white, water-soluble solid.

The one-letter symbol R was assigned to arginine for its phonetic similarity.[4]

History

Arginine was first isolated in 1886 from yellow lupin seedlings by the German chemist Ernst Schulze and his assistant Ernst Steiger.[5][6] He named it from the Greek árgyros (ἄργυρος) meaning "silver" due to the silver-white appearance of arginine nitrate crystals.[7] In 1897, Schulze and Ernst Winterstein (1865–1949) determined the structure of arginine.[8] Schulze and Winterstein synthesized arginine from ornithine and cyanamide in 1899,[9] but some doubts about arginine's structure lingered[10] until Sørensen's synthesis of 1910.[11]

Sources

Production

It is traditionally obtained by hydrolysis of various cheap sources of protein, such as gelatin.[12] It is obtained commercially by fermentation. In this way, 25-35 g/liter can be produced, using glucose as a carbon source.[13]

Dietary sources

Arginine is classified as a semiessential or conditionally essential amino acid, depending on the developmental stage and health status of the individual.[14] Preterm infants are unable to synthesize arginine internally, making the amino acid nutritionally essential for them.[15] Most healthy people do not need to supplement with arginine because it is a component of all protein-containing foods[16] and can be synthesized in the body from glutamine via citrulline.[17][18] Additional, dietary arginine is necessary for otherwise healthy individuals temporarily under physiological stress, for example during recovery from burns, injury or sepsis,[18] or if either of the major sites of arginine biosynthesis, the small intestine and kidneys, have reduced function, because the small bowel does the first step of the synthesizing process and the kidneys do the second.[3]

Arginine is an essential amino acid for birds, as they do not have a urea cycle.[19] For some carnivores, for example cats, dogs[20] and ferrets, arginine is essential,[3] because after a meal, their highly efficient protein catabolism produces large quantities of ammonia which need to be processed through the urea cycle, and if not enough arginine is present, the resulting ammonia toxicity can be lethal.[21] This is not a problem in practice, because meat contains sufficient arginine to avoid this situation.[21]

Animal sources of arginine include meat, dairy products, and eggs,[22][23] and plant sources include seeds of all types, for example grains, beans, and nuts.[23]

Biosynthesis

Arginine is synthesized from citrulline in the urea cycle by the sequential action of the cytosolic enzymes argininosuccinate synthetase and argininosuccinate lyase. This is an energetically costly process, because for each molecule of argininosuccinate that is synthesized, one molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is hydrolyzed to adenosine monophosphate (AMP), consuming two ATP equivalents.[citation needed]

The pathways linking arginine, glutamine, and proline are bidirectional. Thus, the net use or production of these amino acids is highly dependent on cell type and developmental stage.[citation needed]

Arginine biosynthesis

Arginine is made by the body as follows. The epithelial cells of the small intestine produce citrulline, primarily from glutamine and glutamate, which is secreted into the bloodstream which carries it to the proximal tubule cells of the kidney, which extract the citrulline and convert it to arginine, which is returned to the blood. This means that impaired small bowel or renal function can reduce arginine synthesis and thus create a dietary requirement for arginine. For such a person, arginine would become "essential".

Synthesis of arginine from citrulline also occurs at a low level in many other cells, and cellular capacity for arginine synthesis can be markedly increased under circumstances that increase the production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS). This allows citrulline, a byproduct of the NOS-catalyzed production of nitric oxide, to be recycled to arginine in a pathway known as the citrulline to nitric oxide (citrulline-NO) or arginine-citrulline pathway. This is demonstrated by the fact that, in many cell types, nitric oxide synthesis can be supported to some extent by citrulline, and not just by arginine. This recycling is not quantitative, however, because citrulline accumulates in nitric oxide producing cells along with nitrate and nitrite, the stable end-products of nitric oxide breakdown.[24]

Function

Arginine plays an important role in cell division, wound healing, removing ammonia from the body, immune function,[25] and the release of hormones.[14][26][27] It is a precursor for the synthesis of nitric oxide (NO),[28] making it important in the regulation of blood pressure.[29][30] Arginine is necessary for T-cells to function in the body, and can lead to their deregulation if depleted.[31][32]

Proteins

Arginine's side chain is amphipathic, because at physiological pH it contains a positively charged guanidinium group, which is highly polar, at the end of a hydrophobic aliphatic hydrocarbon chain. Because globular proteins have hydrophobic interiors and hydrophilic surfaces,[33] arginine is typically found on the outside of the protein, where the hydrophilic head group can interact with the polar environment, for example taking part in hydrogen bonding and salt bridges.[34] For this reason, it is frequently found at the interface between two proteins.[35] The aliphatic part of the side chain sometimes remains below the surface of the protein.[34]

Arginine residues in proteins can be deiminated by PAD enzymes to form citrulline, in a post-translational modification process called citrullination.This is important in fetal development, is part of the normal immune process, as well as the control of gene expression, but is also significant in autoimmune diseases.[36] Another post-translational modification of arginine involves methylation by protein methyltransferases.[37]

Precursor

Arginine is the immediate precursor of nitric oxide, an important signaling molecule which can act as a second messenger, as well as an intercellular messenger which regulates vasodilation, and also has functions in the immune system's reaction to infection.[citation needed]

Arginine is also a precursor for urea, ornithine, and agmatine; is necessary for the synthesis of creatine; and can also be used for the synthesis of polyamines (mainly through ornithine and to a lesser degree through agmatine, citrulline, and glutamate). The presence of asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), a close relative, inhibits the nitric oxide reaction; therefore, ADMA is considered a marker for vascular disease, just as L-arginine is considered a sign of a healthy endothelium.[38]

Structure

Delocalization of charge in guanidinium group of l-Arginine

The amino acid side-chain of arginine consists of a 3-carbon aliphatic straight chain, the distal end of which is capped by a guanidinium group, which has a pKa of 13.8,[39] and is therefore always protonated and positively charged at physiological pH. Because of the conjugation between the double bond and the nitrogen lone pairs, the positive charge is delocalized, enabling the formation of multiple hydrogen bonds.

Research

Growth hormone

Intravenously administered arginine is used in growth hormone stimulation tests[40] because it stimulates the secretion of growth hormone.[41] A review of clinical trials concluded that oral arginine increases growth hormone, but decreases growth hormone secretion, which is normally associated with exercising.[42] However, a more recent trial reported that although oral arginine increased plasma levels of L-arginine it did not cause an increase in growth hormone.[43]

Herpes-Simplex Virus (Cold sores)

Research from 1964 into amino acid requirements of herpes simplex virus in human cells indicated that "...the lack of arginine or histidine, and possibly the presence of lysine, would interfere markedly with virus synthesis", but concludes that "no ready explanation is available for any of these observations".[44]

Further reviews conclude that "lysine's efficacy for herpes labialis may lie more in prevention than treatment." and that "the use of lysine for decreasing the severity or duration of outbreaks" is not supported, while further research is needed.[45] A 2017 study concludes that "clinicians could consider advising patients that there is a theoretical role of lysine supplementation in the prevention of herpes simplex sores but the research evidence is insufficient to back this. Patients with cardiovascular or gallbladder disease should be cautioned and warned of the theoretical risks."[46]

High blood pressure

A meta-analysis showed that L-arginine reduces blood pressure with pooled estimates of 5.4 mmHg for systolic blood pressure and 2.7 mmHg for diastolic blood pressure.[47]

Supplementation with l-arginine reduces diastolic blood pressure and lengthens pregnancy for women with gestational hypertension, including women with high blood pressure as part of pre-eclampsia. It did not lower systolic blood pressure or improve weight at birth.[48]

Schizophrenia

Both liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometric assays have found that brain tissue of deceased people with schizophrenia shows altered arginine metabolism. Assays also confirmed significantly reduced levels of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), but increased agmatine concentration and glutamate/GABA ratio in the schizophrenia cases. Regression analysis indicated positive correlations between arginase activity and the age of disease onset and between L-ornithine level and the duration of illness. Moreover, cluster analyses revealed that L-arginine and its main metabolites L-citrulline, L-ornithine and agmatine formed distinct groups, which were altered in the schizophrenia group. Despite this, the biological basis of schizophrenia is still poorly understood, a number of factors, such as dopamine hyperfunction, glutamatergic hypofunction, GABAergic deficits, cholinergic system dysfunction, stress vulnerability and neurodevelopmental disruption, have been linked to the aetiology and/or pathophysiology of the disease.[49]

Raynaud's phenomenon

Oral L-arginine has been shown to reverse digital necrosis in Raynaud syndrome[50]

Safety and potential drug interactions

L-arginine is recognized as safe (GRAS-status) at intakes of up to 20 grams per day.[51] L-arginine is found in many foods, such as fish, poultry, and dairy products, and is used as a dietary supplement.[52] It may interact with various prescription drugs and herbal supplements.[52]

See also

References

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  2. ^ IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature. "Nomenclature and Symbolism for Amino Acids and Peptides". Recommendations on Organic & Biochemical Nomenclature, Symbols & Terminology etc. Archived from the original on 29 May 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-17.
  3. ^ a b c Ignarro LJ (2000-09-13). Nitric Oxide: Biology and Pathobiology. Academic Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-08-052503-7.
  4. ^ "IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature A One-Letter Notation for Amino Acid Sequences". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 243 (13): 3557–3559. 10 July 1968. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)34176-6.
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  9. ^ Schulze E, Winterstein E (October 1899). "Ueber die Constitution des Arginins" [On the constitution of arginine]. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 32 (3): 3191–3194. doi:10.1002/cber.18990320385.
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  31. ^ Banerjee, Kasturi; Chattopadhyay, Agnibha; Banerjee, Satarupa (2022-07-01). "Understanding the association of stem cells in fetal development and carcinogenesis during pregnancy". Advances in Cancer Biology - Metastasis. 4: 100042. doi:10.1016/j.adcanc.2022.100042. ISSN 2667-3940. S2CID 248485831.
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  43. ^ Forbes SC, Bell GJ (June 2011). "The acute effects of a low and high dose of oral L-arginine supplementation in young active males at rest". Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 36 (3): 405–11. doi:10.1139/h11-035. PMID 21574873.
  44. ^ Tankersley RW (March 1964). "Amino Acid Requirements of Herpes Simplex Virus in Human Cells". Journal of Bacteriology. 87 (3): 609–613. doi:10.1128/jb.87.3.609-613.1964. PMC 277062. PMID 14127578.
  45. ^ Tomblin FA, Lucas KH (February 2001). "Lysine for management of herpes labialis". American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 58 (4): 298–300, 304. doi:10.1093/ajhp/58.4.298. PMID 11225166.
  46. ^ Mailoo VJ, Rampes S (June 2017). "Lysine for Herpes Simplex Prophylaxis: A Review of the Evidence". Integrative Medicine. 16 (3): 42–46. PMC 6419779. PMID 30881246.
  47. ^ Dong JY, Qin LQ, Zhang Z, et al. (December 2011). "Effect of oral L-arginine supplementation on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials". review. American Heart Journal. 162 (6): 959–65. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2011.09.012. PMID 22137067.
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Sources

  • Griffiths JR, Unwin RD (2016). Analysis of Protein Post-Translational Modifications by Mass Spectrometry. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-25088-3.
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National governing body for basketball South Sudan Basketball FederationFIBA AfricaAssociation crestFoundedMay 2011HeadquartersStar Village Gudele Road, JubaFIBA affiliationNovember 14, 2011PresidentLuol Deng The South Sudan Basketball Federation (SSBF) is the national basketball federation of South Sudan. It operates the men's team, women's team and junior teams. The federation is a FIBA member since November 14, 2003 and is a founding member of the South Sudanese Olympic Committee.[1 ...

 

 

Luther F. McKinney

American politician (1841–1922) Luther Franklin McKinneyUnited States Ambassador to Colombia In officeJuly 17, 1893 – December 6, 1896Appointed byGrover ClevelandPreceded byJohn T. AbbottSucceeded byCharles Burdett HartMember of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom New Hampshire's 1st districtIn officeMarch 4, 1891 – March 3, 1893Preceded byAlonzo NuteSucceeded byHenry William BlairMember of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom New Hampshire's...

Shaka Massey

Questa voce sull'argomento cestisti statunitensi è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Shaka Massey Nazionalità  Stati Uniti Pallacanestro Ruolo Centro CarrieraGiovanili 1998-2000 L.T. Lady TechstersSquadre di club 2000-2001 P.C.R. Messina14 (146) Il simbolo → indica un trasferimento in prestito.   Modifica dati su Wikidata · Manuale Shaka Massey (Anderson, 5 magg...

 

 

祖基菲里阿末

这是马来族人名，“阿末”是父名，不是姓氏，提及此人时应以其自身的名“祖基菲里”为主。 尊敬的拿督斯里哈芝祖基菲里·阿末Dzulkefly bin Ahmad国会议员、DGSM博士 马来西亚卫生部部长现任就任日期2023年12月12日君主最高元首苏丹阿都拉最高元首苏丹依布拉欣·依斯迈首相安华·依布拉欣副职卡尼斯曼（英语：Lukanisman Awang Sauni）前任扎丽哈·慕斯达法任期2018年5月21日—2...

 

 

Constantin Fehrenbach

Pour les articles homonymes, voir Fehrenbach. Constantin Fehrenbach Fonctions Chancelier du Reich 21 juin 1920 – 10 mai 1921 (10 mois et 19 jours) Président Friedrich Ebert Gouvernement Fehrenbach Coalition DZP-DVP-DDP Prédécesseur Hermann Müller Successeur Joseph Wirth Biographie Date de naissance 11 janvier 1852 Lieu de naissance Wellendingen (Royaume de Wurtemberg) Date de décès 26 mars 1926 (à 74 ans) Lieu de décès Fribourg-en-Brisgau (Allemagne) Nationalité Al...

Aaron Judge

American baseball player (born 1992) Baseball player Aaron JudgeJudge with the New York Yankees in 2018New York Yankees – No. 99OutfielderBorn: (1992-04-26) April 26, 1992 (age 32)Sacramento, California, U.S.Bats: RightThrows: RightMLB debutAugust 13, 2016, for the New York YankeesMLB statistics (through June 4, 2024)Batting average.282Hits911Home runs278Runs batted in621 Teams New York Yankees (2016–present) Career highlights and awards 5× All-Star (2017, 2018, 2021�...

 

 

Godoncourt

Peta infrastruktur dan tata guna lahan di Komune Godoncourt.  = Kawasan perkotaan  = Lahan subur  = Padang rumput  = Lahan pertanaman campuran  = Hutan  = Vegetasi perdu  = Lahan basah  = Anak sungaiGodoncourt merupakan sebuah komune di departemen Vosges yang terletak pada sebelah timur laut Prancis. Lihat pula Komune di departemen Vosges Referensi INSEE Diarsipkan 2007-11-24 di Wayback Machine. lbsKomune di departemen Vosges Les Ableuvenettes Ahéville...

 

 

اختلال تحمل الجلوكوز

اختلال تحمل الجلوكوز معلومات عامة الاختصاص علم الغدد الصم  من أنواع فرط سكر الدم،  ومرض  الإدارة أدوية إيكسيناتيد،  وألبيغلوتايد،  ودولاجلوتيد،  وليراجلوتايد  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   ضعف تحمل الجلوكوز هو حالة من اضطراب مستوى جلوكوز الدم تظهر في بداية مرض...

Yahoo! Movies

American film website Upcoming Movies redirects here. For unreleased movies, see Category:Upcoming films. Yahoo! MoviesType of siteMoviesOwnerYahoo!URLmovies.yahoo.comCommercialNoRegistrationOptionalLaunchedMay 12, 1998; 26 years ago (1998-05-12) (as Upcoming Movies)[1]Current statusDisconnected July 20, 2022 Yahoo! Movies (formerly Upcoming Movies), provided by the Yahoo! network, was home to a large collection of information on movies, past and new releases, t...

 

 

Bang Rak Noi Tha It MRT station

Bangkok MRT station on the Purple Line บางรักน้อยท่าอิฐ PP06Bang Rak Noi Tha It  MRT PlatformGeneral informationLocationBang Rak Noi, Mueang Nonthaburi, Nonthaburi, ThailandOwned byMass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand (MRTA)Operated byBangkok Expressway and Metro Public Company Limited (BEM)Line(s)MRT Purple LinePlatforms1 island platformTracks2ConstructionStructure typeElevatedAccessibleYesOther informationStation codePP06HistoryOpened6 August 20...

 

 

August Lehmann

Questa voce sull'argomento calciatori svizzeri è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. August LehmannNazionalità Svizzera Calcio RuoloDifensore CarrieraSquadre di club1 1928-1934 Zurigo1934-1937 Losanna1937-1942 Grasshoppers1942-1943 San Gallo Nazionale 1930-1943 Svizzera32 (3) 1 I due numeri indicano le presenze e le reti segnate, per le sole partite di campionato.Il ...

Le Monde illustré

19th-20th century French periodical Not to be confused with the contemporary Paris newspaper Le Monde Le Monde illustré (title translation: The Illustrated World) was a leading illustrated news magazine in France which was published from 1857–1940 and again from 1945 to 1956. It was in many ways similar to its contemporary English-language newsmagazine The Illustrated London News and should not be confused with the French newspaper Le Monde. Election de la Reine des Blanchisseuses au l...

 

 

Les Tarnauds

Cet article est une ébauche concernant un cours d'eau de France et la Marne. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. Les Tarnauds Les Tarnauds, à Plivot. Caractéristiques Longueur 19,1 km Bassin collecteur Seine Cours Source Jâlons Confluence la Marne · Localisation Épernay Géographie Pays traversés France Régions traversées Grand Est Sources : SANDRE, Géoportail modifier  Les T...