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Timeline of crystallography
This is a
timeline
of
crystallography
.
17th century
1669 - In his book
De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento
[
1
]
Nicolas Steno
asserted that, although the number and size of crystal faces may vary from one crystal to another, the angles between corresponding faces are always the same. This was the original statement of the first law of crystallography (Steno's law).
[
2
]
18th century
1723 -
Moritz Anton Cappeller
introduced the term
crystallography
in his book
Prodromus Crystallographiae De Crystallis Improprie Sic Dictis Commentarium
.
[
3
]
1766 -
Pierre-Joseph Macquer
, in his
Dictionnaire de Chymie
, promoted mechanisms of crystallization based on the idea that crystals are composed of polyhedral molecules (
primitive integrantes
).
[
4
]
1772 -
Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle
developed geometrical ideas on crystal structure in his
Essai de Cristallographie
. He also described the
twinning
phenomenon in crystals.
[
5
]
1781 - Abbé
René Just Haüy
(often termed the "Father of Modern Crystallography"
[
6
]
) discovered that crystals always cleave along crystallographic planes. Based on this observation, and the fact that the inter-facial angles in each crystal species always have the same value, Haüy concluded that crystals must be periodic and composed of regularly arranged rows of tiny polyhedra (
molécules intégrantes
). This theory explained why all crystal planes are related by small rational numbers (the law of rational indices).
[
7
]
[
8
]
1783 - Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle in the second edition of his
Cristallographie
used the contact
goniometer
to discover the law of constant interfacial angles: angles are constant and characteristic for crystals of the same chemical substance.
[
9
]
1784 - René Just Haüy published his law of decrements: a crystal is composed of molecules arranged periodically in three dimensions.
[
10
]
1795 - René Just Haüy lectured on his law of symmetry: "the manner in which Nature creates crystals is always obeying ... the law of the greatest possible symmetry, in the sense that oppositely situated but corresponding parts are always equal in number, arrangement, and form of their faces".
[
11
]
19th century
1801 -
René Just Haüy
published his multi-volume
Traité de Minéralogie
in Paris. A second edition under the title
Traité de Cristallographie
was published in 1822.
[
12
]
[
13
]
1801 -
Déodat de Dolomieu
published his
Sur la philosophie minéralogique et sur l'espèce minéralogique
in Paris.
1815 -
René Just Haüy
published his law of symmetry.
[
14
]
1815 -
Christian Samuel Weiss
, founder of the dynamist school of crystallography, developed a geometric treatment of crystals in which crystallographic axes are the basis for classification of crystals rather than Haüy's polyhedral molecules.
[
15
]
1819 -
Eilhard Mitscherlich
discovered
crystallographic isomorphism
.
[
16
]
1822 -
Friedrich Mohs
attempted to bring the molecular approach of Haüy and the geometric approach of Weiss into agreement.
[
17
]
1823 -
Franz Ernst Neumann
invented a system of crystal face notation, by using the reciprocals of the intercepts with crystal axes, which becomes the standard for the next 60 years.
[
18
]
1824 -
Ludwig August Seeber
conceived of the concept of using an array of discrete (molecular) points to represent a crystal.
[
19
]
1826 -
Moritz Ludwig Frankenheim
deriveed the 32 crystal classes by using the
crystallographic restriction
, consistent with Haüy's laws, that only 2, 3, 4 and 6-fold rotational axes are permitted.
[
20
]
1830 -
Johann F. C. Hessel
publishes an independent geometrical derivation of the 32
point groups
(
crystal classes
).
[
21
]
1832 -
Friedrich Wöhler
and
Justus von Liebig
discovered
polymorphism
in molecular crystals, using the example of
benzamide
.
[
22
]
1839 -
William Hallowes Miller
invented zonal relations by projecting the faces of a crystal upon the surface of a circumscribed sphere.
Miller indices
are defined which form a notation system in crystallography for planes in
crystal (Bravais) lattices
.
[
23
]
1840 -
Gabriel Delafosse
, independently of
Seeber
, represented crystal structure as an array of discrete points generated by defined translations.
[
24
]
1842 -
Moritz Frankenheim
derived 15 different theoretical
networks of points in space
not dependent on molecular shape.
[
25
]
1848 -
Louis Pasteur
discovered that
sodium ammonium tartrate
can crystallize in left- and right-handed forms and showed that the two forms can rotate
polarized light
in opposite directions. This was the first demonstration of
molecular chirality
, and also the first explanation of
isomerism
.
[
26
]
[
27
]
1850 -
Auguste Bravais
derived the 14
space lattices
.
[
28
]
[
29
]
1869 - Axel Gadolin, independently of
Hessel
, derived the 32
crystal classes
using
stereographic projection
.
[
30
]
1877 -
Paul Heinrich von Groth
founded the journal
Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie
, and served as its editor for 44 years.
[
31
]
1877 -
Ernest-François Mallard
, building on the work of
Auguste Bravais
, published a memoir
[
32
]
on optically "anomalous" crystals (that is, those crystals the morphology of which seems to be of greater symmetry than their optics), in which the importance of
crystal twinning
and "pseudosymmetry"
[
33
]
were used as explanatory concepts.
1879 -
Leonhard Sohncke
listed the 65 crystallographic point systems using
rotations
and
reflections
in addition to
translations
.
[
34
]
1888 -
Friedrich Reinitzer
discovered the existence of
liquid crystals
during investigations of
cholesteryl benzoate
.
[
35
]
1889 -
Otto Lehmann
, after receiving a letter from
Friedrich Reinitzer
, used
polarizing light
to explain the phenomenon of
liquid crystals
.
[
36
]
1891 - Derivation of the 230
space groups
(by adding
mirror-image symmetry
to Sohncke's work) by a collaborative effort of
Evgraf Fedorov
and
Arthur Schoenflies
.
[
37
]
[
38
]
1894 -
William Barlow
, using a
sphere packing
approach, independently derived the 230 space groups.
[
39
]
1894 -
Pierre Curie
described the now called
Curie's principle
for the symmetry properties of crystals.
[
40
]
[
41
]
1895 -
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
on 8 November 1895 produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range now known as
X-rays or Röntgen rays
, an achievement that earned him the first
Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1901. X-rays became the major mode of crystallographic research in the 20th century.
[
42
]
1899 -
Hermanus Haga
and
Cornelis Wind
observed X-ray diffuse broadening through a slit and deduced that the wavelength of X-rays is on the order of an
Angstrom
.
[
43
]
20th century
1905 -
Charles Glover Barkla
discovered the X-ray polarization effect.
[
44
]
1908 - Bernhard Walter and
Robert Wichard Pohl
observed X-ray
diffraction
from a slit.
[
45
]
[
46
]
1912 -
Max von Laue
discovered
diffraction patterns
from crystals in an x-ray beam.
[
47
]
1912 -
Bragg diffraction
, expressed through
Bragg's law
, is first presented by
Lawrence Bragg
on 11 November 1912 to the
Cambridge Philosophical Society
.
[
48
]
1912 -
Heinrich Baumhauer
discovered and described
polytypism
in crystals of carborundum, or
silicon carbide
.
[
49
]
1913 - Lawrence Bragg published the first observation of
x-ray diffraction
by crystals.
[
50
]
Similar observations were also published by
Torahiko Terada
in the same year.
[
51
]
[
52
]
[
53
]
1913 -
Georges Friedel
stated
Friedel's law
, a property of Fourier transforms of real functions. Friedel's law is used in X-ray diffraction, crystallography and scattering from real potential within the
Born approximation
.
[
54
]
1914 - Max von Laue won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals."
[
55
]
1915 -
William
and Lawrence Bragg published the book
X rays and crystal structure
[
56
]
and shared the Nobel Prize in Physics "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays."
[
57
]
1916 -
Peter Debye
and
Paul Scherrer
discovered
powder (polycrystalline) diffraction
.
[
58
]
1916 -
Paul Peter Ewald
predicted the
Pendellösung
effect, which is a foundational aspect of the
dynamical diffraction theory
of X rays.
[
59
]
1917 -
Albert W. Hull
independently discovered powder diffraction in researching the crystal structure of metals.
[
60
]
[
61
]
1920 - Reginald Oliver Herzog and Willi Jancke published the first systematic analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns of
cellulose
extracted from a variety of sources.
[
62
]
1921 -
Paul Peter Ewald
introduced a spherical construction for explaining the occurrence of diffraction spots, which is now called
Ewald's sphere
.
[
63
]
1922 -
Charles Galton Darwin
formulated the theory of X-ray diffraction from imperfect crystals and introduced the concept of
mosaicity
in crystallography.
[
64
]
[
65
]
1922 -
Ralph Wyckoff
published a book
[
66
]
containing tables with the positional coordinates permitted by the
symmetry elements
. These positions are now known as
Wyckoff positions
. This book was the forerunner of the
International tables for crystallography
, which first appeared in 1935.
1923 -
Roscoe Dickinson
and Albert Raymond, and independently, H.J. Gonell and
Hermann Mark
, first showed that an organic molecule, specifically
hexamethylenetetramine
, could be characterized by x-ray crystallography.
[
67
]
[
68
]
1923 - William H. Bragg and Reginald E. Gibbs elucidated the structure of
quartz
.
[
69
]
[
70
]
1923 -
Paul Peter Ewald
published his book
Kristalle und Röntgenstrahlen
(Crystals and X-rays).
[
71
]
1924 -
Louis de Broglie
in his PhD thesis
Recherches sur la théorie des quanta
[
72
]
introduced his theory of
electron
waves. This was the start of electron and neutron diffraction and crystallography.
1924 -
J.D. Bernal
established the structure of
graphite
.
[
73
]
1926 -
Victor Goldschmidt
distinguished between
atomic
and
ionic radii
and postulated some rules for atom substitution in crystal structures.
[
74
]
1927 -
Frits Zernike
and Jan Albert Prins proposed the
pair distribution function
for analyzing molecular structures in solution-phase diffraction.
[
75
]
1927 - Two groups demonstrated electron diffraction, the first the
Davisson–Germer experiment
,
[
76
]
[
77
]
[
78
]
[
79
]
the other by
George Paget Thomson
and Alexander Reid.
[
80
]
Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments,
[
81
]
but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident.
[
82
]
1928 -
Felix Machatschki
, working with Goldschmidt, showed that silicon can be replaced by aluminium in
feldspar
structures.
[
83
]
1928 -
Kathleen Lonsdale
used x-rays to determine that the structure of benzene is a flat hexagonal ring.
[
84
]
1928 -
Paul Niggli
introduced reduced cells for simplifying structures using a technique now known as
Niggli reduction
.
[
85
]
1928 -
Hans Bethe
published the first non-relativistic explanation of electron diffraction based upon
Schrödinger's equation
, which remains central to all further analysis.
[
86
]
1928 -
Carl Hermann
introduced
[
87
]
and
Charles Mauguin
modified
[
88
]
the international standard notation for
crystallographic groups
called
Hermann–Mauguin notation
.
1929 -
Linus Pauling
formulated a set of rules (later called
Pauling's rules
) to describe the structure of complex
ionic crystals
.
[
89
]
1929 - William Howard Barnes published the crystal structure of
ice
.
[
90
]
1930 - Lawrence Bragg assembled the first classification of
silicates
, describing their structure in terms of grouping of SiO
4
tetrahedra.
[
91
]
1930 -
Gas electron diffraction
was developed by
Herman Mark
and Raymond Wierl,
[
92
]
[
93
]
1931 -
Paul Ewald
and
Carl Hermann
published the first volume of the
Strukturbericht
(Structure Report),
[
94
]
which established the systematic classification of crystal structure prototypes, also known as the
Strukturbericht designation
.
1931 -
Fritz Laves
enumerated the
Laves tilings
for the first time.
[
95
]
1932 -
W. H. Zachariasen
published an article entitled
The atomic arrangement in glass
,
[
96
]
which perhaps had more influence than any other published work on the science of
glass
.
1932 -
Friedrich Rinne
introduced the concept of
paracrystallinity
for
liquid crystals
and
amorphous materials
.
[
97
]
[
98
]
1932 -
Vadim E. Lashkaryov
and Ilya D. Usyskin determined of the positions of hydrogen atoms in
ammonium chloride
crystals using electron diffraction.
[
99
]
1934 -
Arthur Patterson
introduced the
Patterson function
which uses diffraction intensities to determine the interatomic distances within a crystal, setting limits to the possible phase values for the reflected x-rays.
[
100
]
1934 -
Martin Julian Buerger
developed the equi-inclination Weissenberg
X-ray
camera. Buerger invented the precession camera in 1942.
[
101
]
1934 -
C. Arnold Beevers
and
Henry Lipson
invented the
Beevers–Lipson strip
as a calculation aid for
Fourier methods
for the determination of the crystal structure of CuSO
4
.5H
2
O.
[
102
]
[
103
]
1934 -
Fritz Laves
investigated the structures of
intermetallic
compounds of formula AB
2
.
[
104
]
[
105
]
These structures were subsequently named
Laves phases
.
[
106
]
[
107
]
1935 - First publication of the International tables for the determination of crystal structures edited by
Carl Hermann
.
[
108
]
The successor volumes are currently published by
IUCr
as the
International tables for crystallography
.
[
109
]
1935 -
William Astbury
established the structure of
keratin
using x-ray crystallography;
[
110
]
[
111
]
this work provided the foundation for
Linus Pauling's
1951 discovery of the
α-helix
.
1936 - Peter Debye won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases."
[
112
]
1936 -
Hans Boersch
[
de
]
showed that
electron microscope
could be used as micro-diffraction cameras with an aperture
[
113
]
—the birth of
selected area electron diffraction
.
[
114
]
: Chpt 5-6
1937 -
Clinton Joseph Davisson
and
George Paget Thomson
shared the Nobel Prize in physics "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals."
[
115
]
1939 - Linus Pauling published the book
The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals
.
[
116
]
1939 -
André Guinier
discovered
small-angle X-ray scattering
.
[
117
]
1939 -
Walther Kossel
and
Gottfried Möllenstedt
published the first work on
convergent beam electron diffraction
(CBED),
[
118
]
It was extended by Peter Goodman and Gunter Lehmpfuhl,
[
119
]
then mainly by the groups of
John Steeds
[
120
]
[
121
]
[
122
]
and Michiyoshi Tanaka
[
123
]
[
124
]
who showed how to use CBED patterns to determine
point groups
and
space groups
.
1941 - The
International Centre for Diffraction Data
was founded.
[
125
]
1945 -
George W. Brindley
and Keith Robinson solved the crystal structure of
kaolinite
.
[
126
]
1945 - The crystal structure of the
perovskite
BaTiO
3
was first published by
Helen Megaw
based on
barium titanate
X-ray diffraction data.
[
127
]
1945 -
A.F. Wells
published the classic reference book,
Structural inorganic chemistry
,
[
128
]
which subsequently went through five editions.
1946 - Foundation of the
International Union of Crystallography
.
[
129
]
1946 -
James Batcheller Sumner
shared the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
"for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized".
[
130
]
1947 -
Lewis Stephen Ramsdell
systematically classified the
polytypes
of
silicon carbide
, and introduced the
Ramsdell notation
.
[
131
]
1948 - The first congress and general assembly of the
International Union of Crystallography
was held at
Harvard University
.
[
132
]
1948 -
Acta Crystallographica
was founded by the
International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
with
P.P. Ewald
as its first editor.
[
133
]
1948 -
Ernest O. Wollan
and
Clifford Shull
published the first series of neutron diffraction experiments for crystallography performed at the
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
.
[
134
]
1948 -
George Pake
used
solid state NMR spectroscopy
to determine hydrogen atom distances in a
single crystal
of
gypsum
.
[
135
]
1949 -
Clifford Shull
opened a new field of magnetic crystallography based on
neutron diffraction
.
[
136
]
1950 -
Jerome Karle
and
Herbert A. Hauptman
introduced formulae for phase determination known as
direct methods
.
[
137
]
1951 -
Johannes Martin Bijvoet
and his colleagues, using
anomalous scattering
, confirmed
Emil Fischer
's arbitrary assignment of
absolute configuration
, in relation to the direction of
optical rotation
of
polarized light
, was correct in practice.
[
138
]
1951 -
Linus Pauling
determined the structure of the
α-helix
and the
β-sheet
in
polypeptide chains
.
[
139
]
[
140
]
1951 -
Alexei Vasilievich Shubnikov
published
Symmetry and antisymmetry of finite figures
[
141
]
[
142
]
which opened up the field of
antisymmetry
in
magnetic structures
.
1952 -
David Sayre
suggested that the
phase problem
could be more easily solved by having at least one more intensity measurement beyond those of the
Bragg peaks
in each dimension. This concept is understood today as
oversampling
.
[
143
]
1952 -
Geoffrey Wilkinson
and
Ernst Otto Fischer
determined the structure of
ferrocene
, the first
metallic sandwich compound
, for which they won the 1973 Nobel prize in Chemistry.
[
144
]
[
145
]
The structure was soon refined by
Jack Dunitz
,
Leslie Orgel
, and
Alexander Rich
.
[
146
]
[
147
]
1953 -
Arne Magnéli
introduced the term
homologous series
to describe polytypes of
transition metal
oxides
that exhibit crystallographic shear structures.
[
148
]
1953 - Determination of the structure of
DNA
by three British teams, for which
James Watson
,
Francis Crick
and
Maurice Wilkins
won the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 (
Franklin's
death in 1958 made her ineligible for the award).
[
149
]
[
150
]
[
151
]
1954 -
Ukichiro Nakaya
's book
Snow Crystals: Natural and Artificial
, dedicated to the modern study of
snow crystals
, is published.
[
152
]
1954 -
Linus Pauling
won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances"."
[
153
]
1956 -
Durward W. J. Cruickshank
developed the theoretical framework for anisotropic displacement parameters, also known as the
thermal ellipsoid
.
[
154
]
1956 -
James Menter
published the first electron microscope images showing the lattice structure of a material.
[
155
]
1958 - William Burton Pearson published
A Handbook of Lattice Spacings and Structures of Metals and Alloys
,
[
156
]
where he introduced the
Pearson symbols
for crystal structure types.
1959 -
Norio Kato
and
Andrew Richard Lang
observed
Pendellösung
fringes in X-ray diffraction from silicon and
quartz
.
[
157
]
The observation of similar fringes in neutron diffraction was made by
Clifford Shull
in 1968.
[
158
]
1960 -
John Kendrew
determined the structure of
myoglobin
for which he shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
[
159
]
1960 - After many years of research,
Max Perutz
determined the structure of
haemoglobin
for which he shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
[
160
]
1960 -
Lester Germer
and his coworkers at
Bell Labs
using a flat phosphor screen for the first modern
low-energy electron diffraction
camera combined with
ultra-high vacuum
, the start of quantitative surface crystallography.
[
161
]
[
162
]
[
163
]
1962 -
Alan Mackay
demonstrated that there exists
close packing of spheres
to yield icosahedral structures.
[
164
]
1962 -
Michael Rossmann
and
David Blow
laid the foundation for the
molecular replacement
approach which provides phase information without requiring additional experimental effort.
[
165
]
1962 -
Max Perutz
and
John Kendrew
shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for their studies of the structures of globular proteins", namely haemoglobin and myoglobin respectively
[
166
]
1962 - James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins won the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
"for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material," specifically for their determination of the structure of DNA.
[
167
]
1963 -
Isabella Karle
developed the symbolic addition procedure in
direct methods
for inverting X-ray diffraction data.
[
168
]
1963 - Jürg Waser introduced restrained least square method, also known as
regularized least squares
, for crystallographic structure fitting.
[
169
]
1964 -
Dorothy Hodgkin
won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances." The substances included
penicillin
and
vitamin B12
.
[
170
]
1965 -
David Chilton Phillips
,
Louise Johnson
and their co-workers published the structure of
Lysozyme
, the first enzyme to have its structure determined.
[
171
]
[
172
]
1965 -
Olga Kennard
established the
Cambridge Structural Database
.
[
173
]
[
174
]
1967 -
Hugo Rietveld
invented the
Rietveld refinement
method for computation of crystal structures.
[
175
]
1968 - Erwin Félix Lewy-Bertaut introduced
magnetic space groups
to account for the spin ordering of magnetic structures observed in neutron crystallography.
[
176
]
[
177
]
1968 -
Aaron Klug
and David DeRosier used electron microscopy to visualise the structure of the tail of
bacteriophage
T4, a common virus, thus signalling a breakthrough in macromolecular structure determination.
[
178
]
1968 -
Dorothy Hodgkin
, after 35 years of work, finally deciphered the structure of
insulin
.
[
179
]
1969 - Benno P. Schoenborn conducted the first structural study of macromolecules (
myoglobin
) by neutron diffraction
[
180
]
[
181
]
at the
Brookhaven National Laboratory
.
1970 -
Albert Crewe
demonstrated imaging of single atoms in a
scanning transmission electron microscopy
.
[
182
]
1971 - Establishment of the
Protein Data Bank
(PDB). At PDB, Edgar Meyer develops the first general software tools for handling and visualizing protein structural data.
[
183
]
[
184
]
1971 - Gerd Rosenbaum,
Kenneth Holmes
, and Jean Witz first discussed the potential of
synchrotron X-ray
diffraction for biological applications.
[
185
]
[
186
]
1972 - The first quantitative matching of atomic scale images and dynamical simulations was published by J. G. Allpress, E. A. Hewat, A. F. Moodie and J. V. Sanders.
[
187
]
1972 - Michael Glazer established the classification of octahedral tilting patterns in
perovskite crystal structures
, later also known as the Glazer tilts.
[
188
]
[
189
]
1973 -
Alex Rich's
group published the first report of a
polynucleotide
crystal structure - that of the yeast
transfer RNA
(tRNA) for
phenylalanine
.
[
190
]
1973 -
Geoffrey Wilkinson
and Ernst Fischer shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds", specifically the structure of ferrocene.
[
191
]
1976 -
Douglas L. Dorset
and
Herbert A. Hauptman
used
direct methods
to solve crystal structures from electron diffraction data.
[
192
]
1976 -
Boris Delaunay
, building on his work in the 1930s,
[
193
]
proved that the regularity of a system of points, an (
r
,
R
) system or
Delone set
, can be established by postulating the points' congruence within a sphere of a defined finite radius.
[
194
]
1976 -
William Lipscomb
won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding."
[
195
]
1978 -
Stephen C. Harrison
provided the first high-resolution structure of a virus:
tomato bushy stunt virus
which is
icosahedral
in form.
[
196
]
1978 - Günter Bergerhoff and I. David Brown initiated the
Inorganic Crystal Structure Database
.
[
197
]
[
198
]
1979 - The first award of the
Gregori Aminoff Prize
for a contribution in the field of crystallography is made by the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
to
Paul Peter Ewald
.
[
199
]
1979 - A team involving
Alfred Y. Cho
and others at
Bell Labs
made the first reconstruction of atomic structures at the materials interface between
gallium arsenide
and
aluminium
using
X-ray diffraction
.
[
200
]
1980 -
Jerome Karle
and
Wayne Hendrickson
developed
multi-wavelength anomalous dispersion
(MAD) a technique to facilitate the determination of the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules via a solution of the phase problem.
[
201
]
1982 -
Aaron Klug
won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes."
[
202
]
1983 -
John R. Helliwell
promoted the use of
synchrotron radiation
in the crystallography of
molecular biology
.
[
203
]
[
204
]
1983 - Effectively simultaneously Ian Robinson used
surface X-ray Diffraction (SXRD)
[
205
]
to solve the structure of the gold 2x1 (110) surface,
Laurence D. Marks
used electron microscopy
[
206
]
and
Gerd Binnig
and
Heinrich Rohrer
used
scanning tunneling microscope
.
[
207
]
1984 - A team led by
Dan Shechtman
also involving Ilan Blech,
Denis Gratias
, and
John W. Cahn
discovered
quasicrystals
in a metallic alloy. These structures have no unit cell and no periodic translational order but have long-range bond orientational order, which generates a defined diffraction pattern.
[
208
]
1984 - Aaron Klug and his colleagues provided an advance in determining the structure of protein–nucleic acid complexes when they solved the structure of the 206-kDa
nucleosome
core particle.
[
209
]
1985 -
Jerome Karle
shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with
Herbert A. Hauptman
"for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures". Karle developed the theoretical basis for multiple-wavelength anomalous diffraction (MAD).
[
210
]
1985 -
Hartmut Michel
and his colleagues reported the first high-resolution X-ray crystal structure of an integral
membrane protein
when they published the structure of a
photosynthetic reaction centre
.
[
211
]
1985 - Kunio Takanayagi led a team which solved the structure of the 7x7 reconstruction of the silicon (111) surface using
Patterson function
methods with
ultra-high vacuum
electron diffraction
.
[
212
]
[
213
]
This surface structure had defeated many prior attempts.
1986 -
Ernst Ruska
shared the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first
electron microscope
".
[
214
]
1987 -
John M. Cowley
and Alexander F. Moodie shared the first
IUCr
Ewald Prize
"for their outstanding achievements in
electron diffraction
and microscopy. They carried out pioneering work on the
dynamical scattering of electrons
and the direct imaging of crystal structures and structure defects by
high-resolution electron microscopy
. The physical optics approach used by Cowley and Moodie takes into account many hundreds of scattered beams, and represents a far-reaching extension of the dynamical theory for X-rays, first developed by P.P. Ewald".
[
215
]
1987 -
Don Craig Wiley
and
Jack L. Strominger
solved the structure of the soluble portion of a
class I MHC
molecule known as
HLA-A2
.
[
216
]
This structure revealed the presence of a pocket which holds the
antigenic
peptide
, which is recognized by the receptors of
T cells
only when firmly bound to the MHC product and presented at the surface of an infected cell. This structure strongly influenced the concept of T cell recognition in future work.
[
217
]
1988 -
Johann Deisenhofer
,
Robert Huber
and
Hartmut Michel
shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a
photosynthetic reaction centre
."
[
218
]
1989 -
Gautam R. Desiraju
defined
crystal engineering
as "the understanding of intermolecular interactions in the context of crystal packing and the utilization of such understanding in the design of new solids with desired physical and chemical properties."
[
219
]
1991 - Georg E. Schulz and colleagues reported the structure of a bacterial
porin
, a membrane protein with a cylindrical shape (a ‘
β-barrel
').
[
220
]
1991 - The
crystallographic information file
(CIF) format was introduced by Sydney R. Hall,
Frank H. Allen
, and I. David Brown
[
221
]
based on the
self-defining text archive and retrieval
(STAR) file format developed by Sydney R. Hall.
[
222
]
1991 -
Sumio Iijima
used electron diffraction to determine the structure of carbon nanotubes.
[
223
]
1992 - The International Union of Crystallography changed the IUCr's definition of a crystal to "any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction pattern" thus formally recognizing quasicrystals.
[
224
]
1992 - First release of the
CNS
software package by
Axel T. Brunger
. CNS is an extension of
X-PLOR
released in 1987,
[
225
]
and is used for solving structures based on X-ray diffraction or
solution NMR data
.
[
226
]
1994 - Jan Pieter Abrahams et al. reported the structure of an F1-
ATPase
which uses the
proton-motive force
across the inner
mitochondrial
membrane to facilitate the synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
[
227
]
1994 - Roger Vincent and
Paul Midgley
invented the
precession electron diffraction
method for electron crystallography in a
transmission electron microscope
.
[
228
]
1994 -
Bertram Brockhouse
and Clifford Shull shared the Nobel Prize in Physics "for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter". Specifically, Brockhouse "for the development of
neutron spectroscopy
" and Shull "for the development of the
neutron diffraction
technique."
[
229
]
1994 -
Philip Coppens
led a team of researchers to uncover the transient structure of
sodium nitroprusside
, a first example in X-ray excited-state crystallography.
[
230
]
1995 -
Douglas L. Dorset
published
Structural Electron Crystallography
, a major text on
electron crystallography
.
[
231
]
1997 - The
Bilbao Crystallographic Server
was launched at the
University of the Basque Country
, led by Mois Ilia Aroyo, Juan Manuel Perez-Mato.
[
232
]
[
233
]
1997 - The X-ray crystal structure of
bacteriorhodopsin
was the first time the
lipidic cubic phase (LCP)
was used to facilitate the crystallization of a membrane protein; LCP has since been used to obtain the structures of many unique membrane proteins, including
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
.
[
234
]
1997 -
Paul D. Boyer
and
John E. Walker
shared one half of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)" Walker determined the crystal structure of
ATP synthase
, and this structure confirmed a mechanism earlier proposed by Boyer, mainly on the basis of isotopic studies.
[
235
]
1997 - Nobuo Niimura led a team that first used a neutron image plate for structure determination of lysozyme at the
Institut Laue–Langevin
.
[
236
]
1998 - The structure of
tubulin
and the location of the
taxol
-binding site is first determined by
Eva Nogales
and her team using
electron crystallography
.
[
237
]
[
238
]
1998 - A group led by
Jon Gjønnes
combined three-dimensional electron diffraction with
precession electron diffraction
and
direct methods
to solve an intermetallic, combining this with dynamical refinements.
[
239
]
1999 -
Jianwei Miao
,
Janos Kirz
,
David Sayre
and co-workers performed the first experiment to extend crystallography to allow structural determination of non-crystalline specimens which has become known as
coherent diffraction imaging
(CDI), lensless imaging, or
computational microscopy
.
[
240
]
[
241
]
1999 - A team led by
Michael O'Keefe
and
Omar Yaghi
synthesized and determined the structure of
MOF-5
, the first
metal-organic framework
(MOF) compound.
[
242
]
In the ensuing years, the duo and mathematician Olaf Delgado-Friedrichs further developed the periodic net theory proposed by
Alexander F. Wells
to characterize MOFs.
[
243
]
[
244
]
[
245
]
21st century
2000 -
Janos Hajdu
,
Richard Neutze
, and colleagues calculated that they could use
Sayre's
ideas from the 1950s, to implement a ‘diffraction before destruction' concept, using an
X-ray free-electron laser
(XFEL).
[
246
]
2001 -
Harry F. Noller
's group published the 5.5-Å structure of the complete Thermus thermophilus
70S ribosome
. This structure revealed that the major functional regions of the ribosome were based on
RNA
, establishing the primordial role of RNA in translation.
[
247
]
2001 -
Roger Kornberg
's group published the 2.8-Å structure of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
RNA polymerase
. The structure allowed both transcription initiation and elongation mechanisms to be deduced. Simultaneously, this group reported the structure of free RNA polymerase II, which contributed towards the eventual visualisation of the interaction between DNA, RNA, and the ribosome.
[
248
]
[
249
]
2003 - Raimond Ravelli et al. demonstrated X-ray
radiation damage
-induced phasing method for structure determination.
[
250
]
2005 - The first
X-ray free-electron laser
in the
soft X-ray
regime,
FLASH
, became an operational user facility at
DESY
for X-ray diffraction experiments.
[
251
]
2007 - Ute Kolb and co-workers developed automated diffraction tomography for electron crystallography by combining diffraction and tomography within a
transmission electron microscope
.
[
252
]
[
253
]
[
254
]
2007 - Two X-ray crystal structures of a
GPCR
, the human β2 adrenergic receptor, were published. Because many drugs elicit their biological effect(s) by binding to a GPCR, the structures of these and other GPCRs may be used to develop efficacious drugs with few side effects.
[
255
]
[
256
]
2009 - The first hard X-ray
free-electron laser
, the Linac Coherent Light Source, became operational at the
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
.
[
257
]
[
258
]
2009 -
Luca Bindi
,
Paul Steinhardt
, Nan Yao, and
Peter Lu
identified the first naturally occurring
quasicrystal
using X-ray and electron crystallography.
[
259
]
2009 -
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan
,
Thomas A. Steitz
and
Ada E. Yonath
shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome."
[
260
]
2009 -
Judith Howard
and her collaborators created the
Olex2
crystallographic software package.
[
261
]
2011 -
Gustaaf Van Tendeloo
led a team including Sandra Van Aert, Kees Joost Batenburg et. al. determined the 3D atomic positions of a silver nanoparticle using electron tomography.
[
262
]
2011 -
Dan Shechtman
received the Nobel Prize in chemistry "for the discovery of
quasicrystals
."
[
263
]
2011 -
Henry N. Chapman
,
Petra Fromme
,
John C. H. Spence
and 85 co-workers used femtosecond pulses from a
Free-electron laser (XFEL)
to examine the structure of nanocrystals of
Photosystem I
. By using very brief x-ray pulses, most radiation damage is mitigated using the technique called
serial femtosecond crystallography
.
[
264
]
2012 -
Jianwei Miao
and his co-workers applied the
coherent diffraction imaging
(CDI) method in
Atomic Electron Tomography (AET)
.
[
265
]
[
266
]
2013 -
Tamir Gonen
and his co-workers demonstrated
microcrystal electron diffraction
(microED) for
lysozyme
microcrystals at the
Janelia Farm Research Campus
.
[
267
]
2014 - Carmelo Giacovazzo published
Phasing in Crystallography: A Modern Perspective
, a comprehensive opus on
phasing methods
in X-ray and electron crystallography.
[
268
]
2014 - The
International Union of Crystallography
and
UNESCO
named 2014 the
International Year of Crystallography
to commemorate the century of discovery since the invention of X-ray diffraction.
[
269
]
2017 - Lukas Palatinus and co-workers used dynamical structure refinement to resolve hydrogen atom positions in nanocrystals using electron diffraction.
[
270
]
[
271
]
2017 -
Jacques Dubochet
,
Joachim Frank
and
Richard Henderson
shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry "for developing
cryo-electron microscopy
for the high-resolution structure determination of biomolecules in solution."
[
272
]
2019 - The
Cambridge Structural Database
reached the milestone of one million structures.
[
273
]
[
274
]
2020 - Two independent groups led respectively by Holger Stark and
Sjors Scheres
demonstrated that single-particle
cryoelectron microscopy
has reached atomic resolution.
[
275
]
[
276
]
[
277
]
2021 -
Kenneth G. Libbrecht
published the book
Snow Crystals: A Case Study in Spontaneous Structure Formation
, summarizing his decade-spanning work on the subject for engineering conditions for designer ice crystals.
[
278
]
[
279
]
2022 - Leonid Dubrovinsky, Igor A. Abrikosov, and
Natalia Dubrovinskaia
led a team that demonstrates high-pressure crystallography in the
terapascal
regime.
[
280
]
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Molčanov, Krešimir; Stilinović, Vladimir (2014-01-13).
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Crystallography
Key concepts
Timeline of crystallography
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Structure
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