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Pontic–Caspian steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
	The steppe in Azov-Syvash National Nature Park, Ukraine, with reintroduced horses.
	The steppe extends roughly from the Danube to the Ural River. In this map is shown the region known as Pontic Steppe, which is the biggest portion of the whole Pontic-Caspian Steppe.
Ecology
Realm	Palearctic
Biome	Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Borders	List Caspian lowland desert; Caucasus mixed forests; Central European mixed forests; Crimean Submediterranean forest complex; East European forest steppe; Kazakh semi-desert; Kazakh steppe;
Geography
Area	994,000 km2 (384,000 sq mi)
Countries	List Bulgaria; Kazakhstan; Moldova; Romania; Russia; Ukraine;

The Pontic–Caspian Steppe is a steppe extending across Eastern Europe to Central Asia, formed by the Caspian and Pontic steppes. It stretches from the northern shores of the Black Sea (the Pontus Euxinus of antiquity) to the northern area around the Caspian Sea, where it ends at the Ural-Caspian narrowing, which joins it with the Kazakh Steppe in Central Asia, making it a part of the larger Eurasian Steppe. Geopolitically, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe extends from northeastern Bulgaria and southeastern Romania through Moldova and eastern Ukraine, through the North Caucasus of southern Russia, and into the Lower Volga region where it straddles the border of southern Russia and western Kazakhstan. Biogeographically, it is a part of the Palearctic realm, and of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome.

The area corresponds to Cimmeria, Scythia, and Sarmatia of classical antiquity. Across several millennia, numerous tribes of nomadic horsemen used the steppe; many of them went on to conquer lands in the settled regions of Central and Eastern Europe, West Asia, and South Asia.

The term Ponto-Caspian region is used in biogeography with reference to the flora and fauna of these steppes, including animals from the Black, Caspian, and Azov Seas. Genetic research has identified this region as the most probable place where horses were first domesticated.^[1] The Kurgan hypothesis, the most prevalent theory in Indo-European studies, speculates that the Pontic–Caspian steppe was the homeland of the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] With the scientific advances in DNA genome mapping and the introduction of bioarchaeology, the Kurgan hypothesis is today widely considered to have been validated.^[6]^[7]^[8]

Geography and ecology

The Pontic–Caspian steppe covers an area of 994,000 km² (384,000 sq mi) of Central and Eastern Europe, that extends from northeastern Bulgaria and southeastern Romania, through Moldova, and southern and eastern Ukraine, through the Northern Caucasus of southern Russia, and into the Lower Volga region of western Kazakhstan, to the east of the Ural Mountains. The steppe is bounded by the East European forest steppe to the north, a transitional zone of mixed grasslands and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests.

To the south, the steppe extends to the Black Sea, except the Crimean and western Caucasus mountains' border with the sea, where the Crimean Submediterranean forest complex defines the southern edge of the steppes. The steppe extends to the western shore of the Caspian Sea in the Dagestan region of Russia, but the drier Caspian lowland desert lies between the steppe and the northwestern and northern shores of the Caspian. The Kazakh Steppe bounds the steppe to the east.

The Ponto-Caspian seas are the remains of the Turgai Sea, an extension of the Paratethys which extended south and east of the Urals and covering much of today's West Siberian Plain in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.

Prehistoric cultures

Linear Pottery culture 5500–4500 BC
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture 5300–2600 BC
Khvalynsk culture 5000–3500 BC
Sredny Stog culture 4500–3500 BC
Maykop culture 3700–3000 BC
Yamnaya/Kurgan cultures 3500–2300 BC
Kura-Araxes culture 3000–2000 BC
Catacomb culture 3000–2200 BC
Srubna culture 1600–1200 BC
Koban culture 1100–400 BC
Novocherkassk culture 900–650 BC

Historical peoples and nations

Indo-Europeans 4th millennium BC – now
Cimmerians 12th–7th centuries BC
Dacians and Thracians (Getae) 11th century BC – 3rd century AD
Scythians 8th–4th centuries BC
Sarmatians 5th century BC – 5th century AD
Ostrogoths 3rd–6th centuries
Huns and Avars 4th–8th centuries
Bulgars, Onogurs, and Bulgarians 4th–21st centuries:^[10]
- Great Bulgaria 7th century
- First Bulgarian Empire 7th–11th centuries
- Second Bulgarian Empire 12th–15th centuries
  - Principality of Karvuna
Alans 5th–11th centuries
Eurasian Avars 6th–8th centuries
Göktürks 6th–8th centuries
Sabirs 6th–8th centuries
Khazars 6th–11th centuries
Magyar tribes (Hungarians) 7th–9th centuries attested but probably from earlier
Rus' people (Kievan Rus') 8th–13th centuries
Pechenegs 8th–11th centuries
Kipchaks and Cumans 11th–13th centuries
Mongol Golden Horde 13th–15th centuries
Cossacks, Kalmyks, Crimean Khanate, Volga Tatars, Nogais, and other Turkic states and tribes 15th–18th centuries
Russian Empire 16th–20th centuries
Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus 19th–20th centuries
Soviet Union 20th century
Ukraine, Moldova, Southern Russia 21st century

References

^ "Mystery Of Horse Domestication Solved?". sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
^ David W. Anthony (2010). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400831104.
^ Haak, Wolfgang; Lazaridis, Iosif; Patterson, Nick; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Llamas, Bastien; Brandt, Guido; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Harney, Eadaoin; Stewardson, Kristin; Fu, Qiaomei; Mittnik, Alissa; Bánffy, Eszter; Economou, Christos; Francken, Michael; Friederich, Susanne; Pena, Rafael Garrido; Hallgren, Fredrik; Khartanovich, Valery; Khokhlov, Aleksandr; Kunst, Michael; Kuznetsov, Pavel; Meller, Harald; Mochalov, Oleg; Moiseyev, Vayacheslav; Nicklisch, Nicole; Pichler, Sandra L.; Risch, Roberto; Guerra, Manuel A. Rojo; Roth, Christina; Szécsényi-Nagy, Anna; Wahl, Joachim; Meyer, Matthias; Krause, Johannes; Brown, Dorcas; Anthony, David; Cooper, Alan; Alt, Kurt Werner; Reich, David (10 February 2015). "Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo-European languages in Europe". bioRxiv. 522 (7555): 207–211. arXiv:1502.02783. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..207H. bioRxiv 10.1101/013433. doi:10.1038/NATURE14317. PMC 5048219. PMID 25731166. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
^ Allentoft, Morten E.; Sikora, Martin; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Rasmussen, Simon; Rasmussen, Morten; Stenderup, Jesper; Damgaard, Peter B.; Schroeder, Hannes; Ahlström, Torbjörn; Vinner, Lasse; Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; Margaryan, Ashot; Higham, Tom; Chivall, David; Lynnerup, Niels; Harvig, Lise; Baron, Justyna; Casa, Philippe Della; Dąbrowski, Paweł; Duffy, Paul R.; Ebel, Alexander V.; Epimakhov, Andrey; Frei, Karin; Furmanek, Mirosław; Gralak, Tomasz; Gromov, Andrey; Gronkiewicz, Stanisław; Grupe, Gisela; Hajdu, Tamás; Jarysz, Radosław (2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. 522 (7555): 167–172. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..167A. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. S2CID 4399103.
^ Mathieson, Iain; Lazaridis, Iosif; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Llamas, Bastien; Pickrell, Joseph; Meller, Harald; Guerra, Manuel A. Rojo; Krause, Johannes; Anthony, David; Brown, Dorcas; Fox, Carles Lalueza; Cooper, Alan; Alt, Kurt W.; Haak, Wolfgang; Patterson, Nick; Reich, David (14 March 2015). "Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe". bioRxiv: 016477. doi:10.1101/016477. Retrieved 3 April 2018 – via biorxiv.org.
^ Shinde, Vasant; Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Mah, Matthew; Lipson, Mark; Nakatsuka, Nathan; Adamski, Nicole; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Ferry, Matthew; Lawson, Ann Marie; Michel, Megan; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Stewardson, Kristin; Jadhav, Nilesh (October 2019). "An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers". Cell. 179 (3): 729–735.e10. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 6800651.
^ "2 THE YAMNAYA CULTURE AND THE INVENTION OF NOMADIC PASTORALISM IN THE EURASIAN STEPPES". scholar.google.com. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
^ "Ancient DNA and migrations: New understandings and misunderstandings". scholar.google.com. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
^ "Steppe migrant thugs pacified by Stone Age farming women". ScienceDaily. Faculty of Science – University of Copenhagen. 4 April 2017.
^ "The Proto-Turkic Urheimat and the Early Migrations of Turkic Peoples". Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2013.