A hyperparasite, also known as a metaparasite, is a parasite whose host, often an insect, is also a parasite,[2] often specifically a parasitoid.[a][3] Hyperparasites are found mainly among the wasp-waisted Apocrita within the Hymenoptera, and in two other insect orders, the Diptera (true flies) and Coleoptera (beetles). Seventeen families in Hymenoptera and a few species of Diptera and Coleoptera are hyperparasitic.[4] Hyperparasitism developed from primary parasitism, which evolved in the Jurassic period in the Hymenoptera. Hyperparasitism intrigues entomologists because of its multidisciplinary relationship to evolution, ecology, behavior, biological control, taxonomy, and mathematical models.[4]
The most common examples are insects that lay their eggs inside or near parasitoid larvae, which are themselves parasitizing the tissues of a host, again usually an insect larva.
A well-studied case is that of the small white butterfly (Pieris rapae), a serious horticultural pest of Brassica species such as cabbage and Brussels sprouts. Its larvae are parasitized by the larvae of the wasps Cotesia glomerata and C. rubecula, both of which are in turn parasitized by the wasp Lysibia nana.[5][6]
Plant volatiles are emitted from plants as a defense against herbivory. The volatiles emitted attract parasitic wasps that in turn attack the herbivores. Hyperparasitoids are known to find their victims through herbivore-induced plant volatiles emitted in response to attack by caterpillars that in turn had been parasitized by primary parasitoids. The larvae of parasitic wasps developing inside the caterpillar alter the composition of the oral secretions of their herbivorous host and thereby affect the cocktail of volatiles the plant produces.[7] The pupae of primary parasitoid species are parasitized by many hyperparasitoid species.
Hyperparasites are not limited to insects. There are parasitic flatworms that are parasite on crustaceans, themselves parasite on fish. An example is the monogenean Cyclocotyla bellones, found on Ceratothoa parallela, a cymothoid isopod parasite of the sparid fish Boops boops.[8]
There are further levels of parasitoids, beyond secondary, especially among facultative parasitoids. Three levels of parasitism have been observed in fungi (specifically, a fungus on a fungus on a fungus on a tree).[9]
Hyperparasites can control their hosts' populations, and are used for this purpose in agriculture and to some extent in medicine. The controlling effects can be seen in the way that CHV1 virus helps to control the damage that chestnut blight, Cryphonectria parasitica, does to American chestnut trees, and in the way that bacteriophages can limit bacterial infections. It is likely, though little researched, that most parasitic (disease-causing) micro-organisms have hyperparasites which may prove widely useful in both agriculture and medicine.[10]
Hyperparasitism is to an extent analogous to predation on herbivores, which in turn eat plants, as there are three trophic levels involved. However, hyperparasites are smaller than predators, breed more rapidly than their hosts and are generally found in larger numbers, while especially in the case of micro-organisms, their hosts can sometimes clear their infection. Hyperparasitism may thus behave differently from three-level predator-prey systems: predators can exert control of prey populations, for instance as keystone species, but given the differences between hyperparasites and predators, their effects may need to be modelled differently.[10]
Jonathan Swift refers to hyperparasitism in these lines from his poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody":[11]
So nat'ralists observe, a flea Hath smaller fleas that on him prey; And these have smaller fleas to bite 'em. And so proceeds ad infinitum.
Karl Etzel Karl Etzelin 1836 Karl Etzel in 1839 Karl von Etzel (old spelling Carl von Etzel; 6 January 1812 – 2 May 1865) was a German railway engineer and architect. He created many famous railway lines, bridges and viaducts, including the Bietigheim Enz Valley Viaduct. Life Karl Etzel was the son of the Stuttgart city planner Gottlieb Christian Eberhard von Etzel, the builder of the Neuen Weinsteige, a picturesque road in southeastern Stuttgart. Because his father had built houses in Heilbro…
† Эфиопский парантроп Муляж черепа Научная классификация Домен:ЭукариотыЦарство:ЖивотныеПодцарство:ЭуметазоиБез ранга:Двусторонне-симметричныеБез ранга:ВторичноротыеТип:ХордовыеПодтип:ПозвоночныеИнфратип:ЧелюстноротыеНадкласс:ЧетвероногиеКлада:АмниотыКлада:
Ernst Neiswestny (links) wird 2000 durch Wladimir Putin ausgezeichnet Ernst Iossifowitsch Neiswestny (russisch Эрнст Иосифович Неизвестный, wiss. Transliteration Ėrnst Iosifovič Neizvestnyj; * 9. April 1925 in Swerdlowsk; † 9. August 2016 in New York[1]) war ein sowjetischer bzw. russischer Bildhauer. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Leben 2 Literatur 3 Einzelnachweise 4 Weblinks Leben Ernst Neiswestny: Der Prophet Ernst Neiswestny wurde 1925 in Swerdlowsk (heute Je…
Kurfürst Philipp Wilhelm von der Pfalz Philipp Wilhelm von der Pfalz (* 24. November[1] 1615 in Neuburg an der Donau; † 12. September 1690 in Wien) war Pfalzgraf und Herzog von Pfalz-Neuburg (1653–1690), Herzog von Jülich-Berg (1653–1679) sowie Kurfürst von der Pfalz (1685–1690). Er begründete die Herrschaft der jüngeren Linie Pfalz-Neuburg über die Kurpfalz, die bis 1742 andauerte. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Leben 1.1 Frühe Jahre 1.2 Regierung 2 Ehen und Nachkommen 3 Vorfahren …
Sri Lanka Kapitän Rohan de Silva Aktuelles ITF-Ranking 63 Statistik Erste Teilnahme 1953 Davis-Cup-Teilnahmen 53 Bestes Ergebnis Asien/Ozeanien-Gruppenzone II2R Ewige Bilanz 57:64 Erfolgreichste Spieler Meiste Siege gesamt Harshana Godamanna (51) Meiste Einzelsiege Harshana Godamanna (29) Meiste Doppelsiege Rajeev Rajapakse (28) Bestes Doppel Rajeev Rajapakse / Harshana Godamanna (17) Meiste Teilnahmen Rajeev Rajapakse (44) Meiste Jahre Bernard Pinto (17) Letzte Aktualisierung der Infobox: 9. M…
State park in Oregon, United States W. B. Nelson State Recreation SiteLake and dock at the parkShow map of OregonShow map of the United StatesTypePublic, stateLocationLincoln County, OregonNearest cityWaldportCoordinates44°24′54″N 124°02′08″W / 44.4151198°N 124.0356735°W / 44.4151198; -124.0356735[1]Operated byOregon Parks and Recreation Department W. B. Nelson State Recreation Site is a state park in Lincoln County, western Oregon. It is on …
Baseball defensive play For the play in various codes of football, see interception.In baseball, a pickoff is an act by a pitcher or catcher, throwing a live ball to a fielder so that the fielder can tag out a baserunner who is either leading off or about to begin stealing the next base. San Diego Padres pitcher Craig Stammen attempts to pickoff a baserunner A pickoff attempt occurs when this throw is made in an attempt to make such an out or, more commonly, to keep the runner close by making it…
La cheminée du puits de la Baudonnière. Les mines de charbon de La Bazouge-de-Chemeré sont des mines d'anthracite, situées sur les communes de La Bazouge-de-Chémeré et de Saint-Georges-le-Fléchard et faisant partie des mines de la région Pays de la Loire. On y extrayait un charbon de qualité médiocre appartenant au bassin houiller de Laval, de l'anthracite difficile à allumer, qui alimentait des fours à chaux : par exemple ceux de la Fortinière, de Fours-Croissant, de la Marsou…
Bistum Laval Karte Bistum Laval Basisdaten Staat Frankreich Kirchenprovinz Rennes Metropolitanbistum Erzbistum Rennes Diözesanbischof Sedisvakanz Diözesanadministrator Frédéric Foucher Gründung 1855 Fläche 5175 km² Pfarreien 31 (2021 / AP 2022) Einwohner 307.084 (2021 / AP 2022) Katholiken 282.200 (2021 / AP 2022) Anteil 91,9 % Diözesanpriester 59 (2021 / AP 2022) Ordenspriester 51 (2021 / AP 2022) Katholiken je Priester 2565 Ständige Diakone 23 (2021 / AP 2022) Ordensbrüder 80 (2…
American TV variety series (1950–1951) For the 1959–60 NBC TV series, see Startime (American TV series). For the similarly titled DuMont series (April–November 1950), see Starlit Time. Star TimeBenny Goodman and his band on the showCountry of originUnited StatesOriginal releaseNetworkDuMontReleaseSeptember 2, 1950 (1950-09-02) –February 24, 1951 (1951-02-24) Star Time is an American variety series that aired on the DuMont Television Network from September 5, 1950,[1 …
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Katy Perry performing in 2017 American singer Katy Perry has recorded songs for six studio albums. After singing at church during her childhood, she decided to pursue a career in music in her teenage years.[1] She signed a record deal with Red Hill Records, and released a gospel album called Katy Hudson in 2001.[1] She wrote its songs Last Call, My Own Monster, Spit, and When There's Nothing Left by herself while co-writing the remaining six with Mark Dickson, Scott Faircloff, To…
Castorama Jean-Cyril Robin tijdens de Ronde van Frankrijk 1993 Teaminformatie UCI-code CAS Rechtspersoon Renault Land Frankrijk Opgericht 1990 Opgeheven 1995 Discipline(s) WegwielrennenVeldrijden Budget onbekend Sleutelfiguren Teammanager Cyrille Guimard Ploegnamen 1990 - 199119921993 - 1995 Castorama-RaleighCastorama-SodimeCastorama-MaxiSport Portaal Wielersport Castorama was een Franse wielerploeg actief in de jaren 1990 tot 1995. Hoofdsponsor was Castorama, een Franse bouwm…
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The Life of Emile ZolaPoster rilis teatrikalSutradara William Dieterle Produser Henry Blanke Ditulis oleh Heinz Herald Geza Herczeg Norman Reilly Raine SkenarioHeinz HeraldGeza HerczegNorman Reilly RaineCeritaHeinz HeraldGeza HerczegBerdasarkanZola and His Timeoleh Matthew JosephsonPemeranPaul MuniGloria HoldenGale SondergaardJoseph SchildkrautPenata musikMax SteinerSinematograferTony GaudioPenyuntingWarren LowPerusahaanproduksiWarner Bros.DistributorWarner Bros.Tanggal rilis 11 Agustus 19…
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Lichen, sometimes called reindeer lichen Cladonia rangiferina Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Fungi Division: Ascomycota Class: Lecanoromycetes Order: Lecanorales Family: Cladoniaceae Genus: Cladonia Species: C. rangiferina Binomial name Cladonia rangiferina(L.) Weber ex F.H.Wigg. (1780) Synonyms[1] Lichen rangiferinus L. (1753) Cladina rangiferina (L.) Nyl. (1866) Top view of C. rangiferinaThe underside of C. rangiferina Cladonia rangiferina, also known as rein…
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