Freshwater salinization

Salt consists of sodium chloride. Through primary and secondary salinization, it intrudes into freshwater and damages the health of humans and other organisms.

Freshwater salinization is the process of salty runoff contaminating freshwater ecosystems, which can harm aquatic species in certain quantities and contaminate drinking water.[1] It is often measured by the increased amount of dissolved minerals than what is considered usual for the area being observed.[2] Naturally occurring salinization is referred to as primary salinization; this includes rainfall, rock weathering, seawater intrusion, and aerosol deposits.[3] Human-induced salinization is termed as secondary salinization, with the use of de-icing road salts as the most common form of runoff.[4]  Approximately 37% of the drainage in the United States has been affected by salinization in the past century.[1] The EPA has defined two thresholds for healthy salinity levels in freshwater ecosystems: 230 mg/L Cl for average salinity levels and 860 mg/L Cl for acute inputs.[5]

Primary salinization

Salinity plays a major role in a freshwater organism's attempts to maintain an osmotic balance between ion concentration and their internal fluids. Salinization increases osmotic pressure, thus negatively affecting the chance of an organism's fitness and survival.[3] Higher levels of salinity present in freshwater environments can lead to declining species richness in general observations, though toxicity varies among freshwater species and the identity of the ions that are causing the salinization.[6] Excluding an organism's death, excess salinity may also lead to a decrease in both individual and population fitness via stunted growth during adolescence,[7] decreased feeding ability,[8] oxidative stress,[9] and overall bodily disfigurement.[10]

Excess amounts of saline water in freshwater areas also play a significant role on larger population scales; they may alter trophic interactions within ecosystems[11] and transform pre-existing biochemical cycles into 'new' ones by changing the flow of compound direction. The altercation of ecosystems may facilitate the intrusion of invasive species that are able to handle brackish to saline water conditions[12]

Effects on human health

Most of the water that humans use and consume everyday originate from freshwater sources.[13] High salt concentrations within drinking water sources can result in many harmful effects on human health.[14] A study on two coastal villages in Bangladesh showed that when freshwater contaminated with high salinity concentrations is consumed, it can result in health issues such as hair loss, skin diseases, gastric problems, diarrhea, and high blood pressure.[15] High salinity levels in drinking water also has been found to be highly associated with cardiovascular diseases (CVD).[14] Freshwaters that are alkaline and salty can also mobilize and release a variety of chemicals that travel together throughout watersheds, contaminate human water sources, and can cause a variety of negative health effects on humans if consumed.[16] These toxic chemicals, often consisting of metals and nitrogen containing compounds, are either forced out of streambed soils by the salt ions,[16] or the salinity within the water corrodes the pipes through passing, releasing the chemicals into the water source.[17] An example of this occurring was in Flint, Michigan. Due to the high salt concentrations in the Flint River water source from nearby road salt runoffs, the water passing through the resident's pipes contributed to corrosion and the release of lead into their drinking water.[17]

Secondary salinization

Colder climates use mixtures of salt to keep ice from forming along roads, which increases saline runoff to nearby freshwater locations.

Human interaction accelerates rates of primary salinization. Land development, like construction and mining, causes compounds found in bedrock to be released from their tight locations and come to the surface, which are then exposed to accelerated rates of weathering, eventually leading to leaching ions in nearby water sources. Agricultural practices also generate highly saline irrigation that may enter freshwater through the introduction of various pesticides or husbandry-related runoff, and naturally saline groundwater can be brought to the surface via land clearing.[3]

Chlorine in the form of chloride is recognized as the most common type of anthropogenic salts exposed to an environment.[2] In agricultural practices, chlorine is mixed together with other compounds to produce an antibacterial solvent used to treat water. This treated water moves from fields into watersheds where it may remain present for long periods of time. Aggregation of chlorine is especially prevalent where improper irrigation occurs. Raised chloride levels may lead to acidification, movement of metalloid compounds via ion exchange with the stream bed, tampering with lake mixing schedules, and modifications of freshwater biotic relationships.[18]

Effects on freshwater organisms

Due to body permeability, the salinity of the organism's aquatic environment can have a huge influence on cellular stability.[3] Organisms residing in freshwater ecosystems need to maintain an osmotic balance between their body fluids and the ion concentrations within their cells.[3] Changes in osmotic pressure requires large amounts of energy and can result in cellular damage and cellular death within the organisms.[3] Changes within salinity levels affect organisms within freshwater ecosystems both directly and indirectly.[19] The toxic levels of salt ions can directly result in physiological changes in species which can cause harmful effects to not only the individual, but also the species population.[19] The various effects on these organisms can then indirectly affect the overall freshwater ecosystem by modifying the aquatic community structure and function.[19] As salinity increases within a freshwater ecosystem, often this results in a decrease of biota diversity and richness.[19] The extinction rate for freshwater organisms are among the highest worldwide,[3] and as salinity levels in these aquatic ecosystems continue to increase, more species and their environments will become threatened.

Freshwater salinization can negatively effect the species richness, diversity, and community composition across multiple trophic levels. Competitive interactions between zooplankton can change as salinity increases, leading species such as Simocephalus vetulus to outcompete the normally-dominant Daphnia galeata under high salinity treatments.[20] Species richness and diversity declines as salinity increases for most macro-invertebrate species as well.[21] Mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies, which are considered to be good indicators of stream health, exhibited particularly sharp declines due to increased salinity.[21] Some fish species are negatively effected by salinization. In the lower Pecos River, 13 of the 44 native fish species have disappeared in areas of high salinization.[22] However, some fish only exhibit declines when salinity reaches extreme levels.[23]

A study performed in Baltimore revealed that at low concentrations, increased levels of chloride hinders the denitrification process within lakes, which is crucial for removing nitrate, the byproduct of ammonia from fish and other aquatic organisms. Chloride levels in the Northeastern USA increase seasonally to around 5 grams a liter from street salt use in the winter. This vacillation causes freshwater communities closer to urban areas to have reduced biodiversity and trophic complexity.[24]

A depiction of freshwater salinization syndrome (FSS). Many different factors contribute to FSS, making it difficult for scientist to quantify. Anthropogenic and biological outputs mix together to create unique effects in freshwater systems.

Biomodification of salt toxicity

Due to numerous concurrent stressors present in freshwater communities, increased levels of salinization may have unforeseen effects caused by interactions with other compounds. Freshwater salinization syndrome (FSS) is cited to be a familiar threat to freshwater located in North America and Europe.[3] The interactions between salt and pH, nutrients, metals, and base cations is not adequately known, though may exacerbate existing issues to negatively effect water quality, carbon dioxide concentrations, and biodiversity. The ion concentration of salt toxicity may change the level of reactivity a species will respond with. To be able to properly recognize the threat salinity plays requires the proper proportions of each ion present to be accounted for. Sensitivity also varies between species. Studies focusing on the abiotic interactions with freshwater organisms found that salinity had an additive effect on the detrimental compounds being observed for the majority of the time, but not always, which makes the prediction process difficult for scientists.[3]

Salinization and alkalization have been linked through the study of arid regions across North America and have negatively effected 37% and 90% of freshwater drainage areas, respectively. Their interaction is best noted by the levels of rising pH in streams and rivers measured in 232 USGS sites in 2018. Among these sites, 66% have shown a significant escalation of pH, the most commonly affected area being heavily populated cities in the east and mid-west. Along with the usual salinization offenders of agricultural runoff and road ice, lime and concrete quickly weather down to contribute base ions and salts into water streams. Noticeable signs of FSS include infrastructure deterioration, lowered biodiversity, and the increased mobilization of pollutants within an aquatic system. In conjunction with photosynthetic organisms, basic levels of pH can enter a positive feedback loop via the deficiency of dissolved carbons in the water in relation to the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide, thus further exacerbating FSS.[1]

Prevention and remediation

Remediation may occur by creating a national standardized database where local governments and companies can report the quantity and chemical concentration of the road salts released for de-icing purposes.[25] This would help regulate and monitor the ions being released into the environment so nearby freshwater sources can be monitored for exposure more carefully.[25] There also needs to be a standardized reference developed by reputable scientists that shows what the average expected levels of salt ions for a normal freshwater ecosystem are.[25] A Canadian study suggested the use of halophyte plants to help remediate the salt exposure within the soils and prevent its infiltration into groundwater.[26] Halophytes are plants that have a high salt tolerance, and the purpose of the study was to see if they could be planted around areas with high road salt usages to prevent infiltration into water sources.[26] The results showed that when the surrounding soil was tested, 11% of Cl ions and 87% of Na ions were retained within the top soil layers when halophytes were present.[26] This shows potential in preventing road salt runoff from accessing freshwater sources. If halophytes were planted around freshwater sources, salt ions would be less likely to run into freshwater sources, and salinity could be limited or prevented. In regards to other harmful human practices such as mining, conservationists and volunteers are planting species of native Appalachian trees and plants on sites used previously for mining activities. Replanting these native plants will hopefully remediate the land that was destroyed by the mountaintop mining practices and increase the biodiversity in Appalachia.[27] The red spruce was one native species that was reintroduced due to its important ability to filter and capture water from a deep organic layer within its surrounding soil.[27] 90% of the red spruce trees planted survived,[27] which shows promise towards remediation efforts through the use of native species.

Bibliography

  1. ^ a b c Kaushal, Sujay S.; Likens, Gene E.; Pace, Michael L.; Utz, Ryan M.; Haq, Shahan; Gorman, Julia; Grese, Melissa (2018-01-08). "Freshwater salinization syndrome on a continental scale". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (4): E574 – E583. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115E.574K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1711234115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5789913. PMID 29311318.
  2. ^ a b "Salinization - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2020-10-13.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cañedo-Argüelles, Miguel; Kefford, Ben; Schäfer, Ralf (2019-01-21). "Salt in freshwaters: causes, effects and prospects - introduction to the theme issue". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 374 (1764). doi:10.1098/rstb.2018.0002. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 6283966. PMID 30509904.
  4. ^ Evans, D. M.; Villamagna, A. M.; Green, M. B.; Campbell, J. L. (2018-08-16). "Origins of stream salinization in an upland New England watershed". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 190 (9): 523. doi:10.1007/s10661-018-6802-4. ISSN 1573-2959. PMID 30116969. S2CID 52022441.
  5. ^ Moore, Joel; Fanelli, Rosemary M.; Sekellick, Andrew J. (21 January 2020). "Moore, J., R. M. Fanelli, and A. J. Sekellick (2020) High-Frequency Data Reveal Deicing Salts Drive Elevated Specific Conductance and Chloride along with Pervasive and Frequent Exceedances of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Aquatic Life Criteria for Chloride in Urban Streams". doi:10.1021/acs.est.9b04316.s001. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ^ Kefford, Ben J.; Marchant, Richard; Schäfer, Ralf B.; Metzeling, Leon; Dunlop, Jason E.; Choy, Satish C.; Goonan, Peter (January 2011). "The definition of species richness used by species sensitivity distributions approximates observed effects of salinity on stream macroinvertebrates". Environmental Pollution. 159 (1): 302–310. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2010.08.025. ISSN 1873-6424. PMID 20932614.
  7. ^ Hassell, Kathryn L.; Kefford, Ben J.; Nugegoda, Dayanthi (October 2006). "Sub-lethal and chronic salinity tolerances of three freshwater insects: Cloeon sp. and Centroptilum sp. (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae) and Chironomus sp. (Diptera: Chironomidae)". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 209 (Pt 20): 4024–4032. doi:10.1242/jeb.02457. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 17023596.
  8. ^ Soucek, David John (2007-08-01). "Sodium sulfate impacts feeding, specific dynamic action, and growth rate in the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fluminea". Aquatic Toxicology (Amsterdam, Netherlands). 83 (4): 315–322. doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2007.05.006. ISSN 0166-445X. PMID 17590452.
  9. ^ Cañedo-Argüelles, Miguel; Sala, Miquel; Peixoto, Gabriela; Prat, Narcís; Faria, Melissa; Soares, Amadeu M. V. M.; Barata, Carlos; Kefford, Ben (2016-01-01). "Can salinity trigger cascade effects on streams? A mesocosm approach". The Science of the Total Environment. 540: 3–10. Bibcode:2016ScTEn.540....3C. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.039. ISSN 1879-1026. PMID 25818391.
  10. ^ Chinathamby, Kavitha; Reina, Richard D.; Bailey, Paul C. E.; Lees, Belinda K. (2006-06-02). "Effects of salinity on the survival, growth and development of tadpoles of the brown tree frog, Litoria ewingii". Australian Journal of Zoology. 54 (2): 97–105. doi:10.1071/ZO06006. ISSN 1446-5698.
  11. ^ Hintz, William D.; Mattes, Brian M.; Schuler, Matthew S.; Jones, Devin K.; Stoler, Aaron B.; Lind, Lovisa; Relyea, Rick A. (April 2017). "Salinization triggers a trophic cascade in experimental freshwater communities with varying food-chain length". Ecological Applications. 27 (3): 833–844. doi:10.1002/eap.1487. ISSN 1051-0761. PMID 27992971.
  12. ^ Herbert, Ellen R.; Boon, Paul; Burgin, Amy J.; Neubauer, Scott C.; Franklin, Rima B.; Ardón, Marcelo; Hopfensperger, Kristine N.; Lamers, Leon P. M.; Gell, Peter (2015). "A global perspective on wetland salinization: ecological consequences of a growing threat to freshwater wetlands". Ecosphere. 6 (10): art206. doi:10.1890/ES14-00534.1. ISSN 2150-8925.
  13. ^ "Freshwater (Lakes and Rivers) and the Water Cycle". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2020-10-08.
  14. ^ a b Chakraborty, Rishika; Khan, Khalid M.; Dibaba, Daniel T.; Khan, Md Alfazal; Ahmed, Ali; Islam, Mohammad Zahirul (October 2019). "Health Implications of Drinking Water Salinity in Coastal Areas of Bangladesh". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (19): 3746. doi:10.3390/ijerph16193746. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC 6801928. PMID 31590283.
  15. ^ Akib Jabed, Md.; Paul, Alak; Nath, Tapan Kumar (2020-03-01). "Peoples' Perception of the Water Salinity Impacts on Human Health: A Case Study in South-Eastern Coastal Region of Bangladesh". Exposure and Health. 12 (1): 41–50. doi:10.1007/s12403-018-0283-0. ISSN 2451-9685. S2CID 135105802.
  16. ^ a b "Saltier waterways are creating dangerous 'chemical cocktails'". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 2020-10-08.
  17. ^ a b "More Salt in Our Water Is Creating Scary New 'Chemical Cocktails'". The Revelator. 2019-01-23. Retrieved 2020-10-08.
  18. ^ Kaushal, S. S. (2009-01-01), "Chloride", in Likens, Gene E. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 23–29, ISBN 978-0-12-370626-3, retrieved 2020-10-13
  19. ^ a b c d Nielsen, D. L.; Brock, M. A.; Rees, G. N.; Baldwin, D. S. (2003). "Effects of increasing salinity on freshwater ecosystems in Australia". Australian Journal of Botany. 51 (6): 655–665. doi:10.1071/bt02115. ISSN 1444-9862.
  20. ^ Loureiro, Cláudia; Pereira, Joana L.; Pedrosa, M. Arminda; Gonçalves, Fernando; Castro, Bruno B. (2013-08-05). "Competitive Outcome of Daphnia-Simocephalus Experimental Microcosms: Salinity versus Priority Effects". PLOS ONE. 8 (8): e70572. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...870572L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070572. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3734296. PMID 23940594.
  21. ^ a b Timpano, Anthony J.; Schoenholtz, Stephen H.; Soucek, David J.; Zipper, Carl E. (2018). "Benthic macroinvertebrate community response to salinization in headwater streams in Appalachia USA over multiple years". Ecological Indicators. 91: 645–656. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.04.031. ISSN 1470-160X. S2CID 90410472.
  22. ^ Hoagstrom, Christopher (2009). "Causes and impacts of salinization in the lower pesos river". Great Planes Research. 19: 27–44.
  23. ^ Hintz, William D.; Relyea, Rick A. (2017-07-31). "A salty landscape of fear: responses of fish and zooplankton to freshwater salinization and predatory stress". Oecologia. 185 (1): 147–156. Bibcode:2017Oecol.185..147H. doi:10.1007/s00442-017-3925-1. ISSN 0029-8549. PMID 28762176. S2CID 23252719.
  24. ^ Kaushal, S. S.; Groffman, P. M.; Likens, G. E.; Belt, K. T.; Stack, W. P.; Kelly, V. R.; Band, L. E.; Fisher, G. T. (2005-09-12). "From The Cover: Increased salinization of fresh water in the northeastern United States". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (38): 13517–13520. doi:10.1073/pnas.0506414102. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1224654. PMID 16157871.
  25. ^ a b c Schuler, Matthew S.; Cañedo-Argüelles, Miguel; Hintz, William D.; Dyack, Brenda; Birk, Sebastian; Relyea, Rick A. (2019-01-21). "Regulations are needed to protect freshwater ecosystems from salinization". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 374 (1764): 20180019. doi:10.1098/rstb.2018.0019. PMC 6283961. PMID 30509918.
  26. ^ a b c Mann, Ellen (2019-10-01). Road salt soil contamination and remediation methods using halophytes (thesis thesis).
  27. ^ a b c "Reclaiming Appalachia: A Push to Bring Back Native Forests to Coal Country". Yale E360. Retrieved 2020-10-23.

Read other articles:

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. Mahatma Gandhi as photographed in London in 1931 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was a key Indian independence movement leader known for employing nonviolent resistance against British Rule to successfully lead the campaign. He was the pioneer of Satyagraha — the resistance of alleged tyranny through mass civil disobedience, firmly founded up...

 

Bahasa Isyarat Militer adalah bahasa isyarat yang digunakan oleh para militer untuk di medan perang. Bahasa isyarat ini dilakukan oleh pemimpin pasukan untuk berkomunikasi dengan pasukannya disaat komunikasi biasa sulit, atau tidak mungkin dilakukan. Komunikasi ini juga dilakukan oleh para pasukan infanteri untuk berkomunikasi dengan pasukan tempur lainnya disaat alat-alat komunikasi tidak bisa digunakan. Bahasa isyarat paling sering sering dilakukan di antara pasukan-pasukan infanteri di dar...

 

هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (ديسمبر 2021) هجمات جمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية 2021 شنت جماعات مسلحة مختلفة هجمات في جمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية في عام 2021. وقد أسفرت الهجمات عن مقتل 629 وإصابة 321 (لا تشمل �...

العلاقات الروسية الكندية روسيا كندا   روسيا   كندا تعديل مصدري - تعديل   العلاقات الروسية الكندية هي العلاقات الثنائية التي تجمع بين روسيا وكندا.[1][2][3][4][5] خلفية كجزء من الإمبراطورية البريطانية، لم تنشئ كندا وزارة خارجية (الشؤون الخارجية) ح...

 

1991 American documentary film Not to be confused with Heart of Darkness (1993), an adaptation of the original novel upon which Apocalypse Now is based. Hearts of Darkness:A Filmmaker's ApocalypseTheatrical release posterDirected by Fax Bahr George Hickenlooper Documentary footage:Eleanor Coppola Written by Fax Bahr George Hickenlooper Produced by George Zaloom Les Mayfield Starring Eleanor Coppola Francis Ford Coppola Robert Duvall Dennis Hopper George Lucas John Milius Martin Sheen Edited b...

 

The HonourablePaul KeatingKeating (kiri) dan Presiden AS Bill Clinton (Kanan) tahun 1993. Perdana Menteri Australia ke-24Elections: 1993, 1996Masa jabatan20 Desember 1991 – 11 Maret 1996WakilBrian Howe (1991-1995)Kim Beazley (1995-1996)PendahuluBob HawkePenggantiJohn HowardDeputi Perdana Menteri AustraliaMasa jabatan4 April 1990 – 3 Juni 1991Perdana MenteriBob HawkePendahuluLionel BowenPenggantiBrian HoweMenteri Keuangan Australia ke-30Masa jabatan11 Maret 1983 ...

Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento Aviazione è priva o carente di note e riferimenti bibliografici puntuali. Sebbene vi siano una bibliografia e/o dei collegamenti esterni, manca la contestualizzazione delle fonti con note a piè di pagina o altri riferimenti precisi che indichino puntualmente la provenienza delle informazioni. Puoi migliorare questa voce citando le fonti più precisamente. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Nellis Air Force Baseaeroporto Codice IATALS...

 

Чорний Дмитро Сергійович Особові дані Ім'я Чорний Дмитро Сергійович Народився 14 жовтня 1989(1989-10-14) Місце народження Жовті Води Етнічне походження українець Партійність Слуга народу Вища освіта ПДАБА Чорний Дмитро Сергійович на сайті Верховної Ради Народний депутат Укра...

 

2006 National Football League championship game 2006 Super Bowl redirects here. For the Super Bowl that was played at the completion of the 2006 season, see Super Bowl XLI. Super Bowl XL Seattle Seahawks (1)(NFC)(13–3) Pittsburgh Steelers (6)(AFC)(11–5) 10 21 Head coach:Mike Holmgren Head coach:Bill Cowher 1234 Total SEA 3070 10 PIT 0777 21 DateFebruary 5, 2006 (2006-02-05)StadiumFord Field, Detroit, MichiganMVPHines Ward, wide receiverFavoriteSteelers by 4[1][2]Refer...

American college football season This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: 2024 Eastern Michigan Eagles football team – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) 2024 Eastern Michigan Eagles footballConferenceMid-American ConferenceRecord0–...

 

Thompson’s Mills State Heritage SiteBoston Flour MillShow map of OregonShow map of the United StatesTypePublic, stateLocationLinn County, OregonNearest citySheddCoordinates44°27′39″N 123°04′54″W / 44.4609563°N 123.0817593°W / 44.4609563; -123.0817593[1]CreatedDecember 2007 (2007-12)Operated byOregon Parks and Recreation Department Thompson's Mills State Heritage Site is a state park near Shedd in Linn County, Oregon, United St...

 

هذه المقالة بحاجة لصندوق معلومات. فضلًا ساعد في تحسين هذه المقالة بإضافة صندوق معلومات مخصص إليها. تمثيل رأس حصان ما قبل التاريخ - متحف سان جيرمان اونلي يقدم فن العصر الحجري القديم العلوي أقدم شكل من الأشكال الفنية ما قبل التاريخ. وُجد الفن التشخيصي في أوروبا وجنوب شرق آسيا ...

تاريخ المقرابالتأثيراتأحد جوانب مقراب فرع من تاريخ علم الفلكتاريخ التقانة تعديل - تعديل مصدري - تعديل ويكي بيانات يمكن إرجاع تاريخ المقراب إلى ما قبل اختراع أول مقراب معروف، ظهر ذلك في هولندا عام 1608، عندما قدم صانع النظارات هانز ليبرشي طلب براءة اختراع. رغم أن ليبرسي لم يحص...

 

Election in South Dakota Main article: 1920 United States presidential election 1920 United States presidential election in South Dakota ← 1916 November 2, 1920 1924 →   Nominee Warren G. Harding James M. Cox Parley P. Christensen Party Republican Democratic Nonpartisan League Alliance Farmer–Labor Home state Ohio Ohio Illinois Running mate Calvin Coolidge Franklin D. Roosevelt Max S. Hayes Electoral vote 5 0 0 Popular vote 110,692 35,938 34,70...

 

Ottorino Giera Sindaco di LivornoDurata mandatoottobre 1879 – maggio 1881 PredecessoreAndrea Giovannetti SuccessorePiero Donnini Deputato del Regno d'ItaliaLegislaturaXIV legislatura del Regno d'Italia CollegioLivorno I Sito istituzionale Dati generaliTitolo di studiolaurea in giurisprudenza Professioneavvocato Ottorino Giera (Livorno, 28 agosto 1841 – Livorno, 5 gennaio 1912) è stato un politico italiano. Indice 1 Biografia 2 Note 3 Bibliografia 4 Collegamenti esterni Bio...

London bus operator Not to be confused with Metro line, Metroliner, or Metrobus. MetrolineWright Eclipse Gemini 3 bodied Volvo B5LH on route 328 at High Street Kensington station in April 2024ParentComfortDelGroFounded1 April 1989; 35 years ago (1989-04-01)HeadquartersCricklewood, London, United KingdomService area Greater London Hertfordshire Service typeBus servicesDepots13Fleet1,429 (March 2023)Fuel typeDiesel, Hybrid, Electric and HydrogenManaging DirectorStephen HarrisW...

 

Nico DenzNico Denz en 2023InformationsNaissance 15 février 1994 (30 ans)Waldshut-TiengenNationalité allemandeÉquipe actuelle Red Bull-Bora-HansgroheÉquipes non-UCI 2006-2012VBC Waldshut-Tiengen2013-7.2014Chambéry CF2015-7.2015Chambéry CFÉquipes UCI 8.2014-2014AG2R La Mondiale (stagiaire)8.2015-2015AG2R La Mondiale (stagiaire)2016-2019AG2R La Mondiale2020Team Sunweb2021-2022Team DSM2023-6.2024Bora-Hansgrohe6.2024-Red Bull-Bora-HansgrohePrincipales victoires 2 étapes de grands tour...

 

Italian basketball player, journalist, and financial planner Stefania Passaro on the Italian Team. Stefania Passaro boxing out Uljana Semjonova. Stefania Passaro (born 11 December 1963) is an Italian retired basketball player, a journalist and a certified European Financial Planner. She is 1.93 m (6 ft 4 in) tall. Born at Rapallo, she played professionally in Italy for 17 seasons, from 1978 to 1995, earning the European Cup for Women's Champion Clubs for 6 times and National Ch...

Not to be confused with STOVL. Aircraft takeoff and landing class This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: V/STOL – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) RAF Harrier GR9 arrives at RIAT 2008 A U.S. Marine Corps MV-22 Osprey prepares to...

 

Medieval tribal confederation in northern Britain Pict redirects here. For other uses, see Pict (disambiguation). The Aberlemno I roadside symbol stone, Class I Pictish stone with Pictish symbols, showing (top to bottom) the serpent, the double disc and Z-rod and the mirror and comb The Picts were a group of peoples in what is now Scotland north of the Firth of Forth, in the Early Middle Ages.[1] Where they lived and details of their culture can be gleaned from early medieval texts an...