Colorado is a geologic name applied to certain rocks of Cretaceous age in the North America, particularly in the western Great Plains. This name was originally applied to classify a group of specific marine formations of shale and chalk known for their importance in Eastern Colorado. The surface outcrop of this group produces distinctive landforms bordering the Great Plains and it is a significant feature of the subsurface of the Denver Basin and the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. These formations record important sequences of the Western Interior Seaway. As the geology of this seaway was studied, this name came to be used in states beyond Colorado but later was replaced in several of these states with more localized names.
The USGS convention has been to use Colorado Group where the rocks are further divided into formations, Colorado Formation where no beds are developed enough to be mapped as formations, and Colorado Shale where the unit is composed of little more than shale with no distinctive structures (such as in north-central Montana).[4]
In 1871, Hayden crossed Kansas and Colorado on the recently completed Kansas Pacific Railway, and between Abilene and Limon confirmed the whole series within the two states.[6]
Hayden proposed term "Colorado Group" in 1876 to embrace the Benton, Niobrara, and Pierre units for their collective exposures in the dramatic hogbacks and incised plateaus facing the Rocky Mountain front ranges of Colorado.[2] The group was described by A. Hague and S.E. Emmons in 1877.[7]
However, by 1878, C. A. White restricted the Colorado Group to the Benton and Niobrara, which are the formations found within the flatirons and secondary hogbacks on the east flank of the Dakota Hogback.[2][8][9][4]
During the last decade of the 19th Century, Cretaceous rocks in Colorado and western Kansas were a focus of considerable study. The Benton and Niobrara were particularly associated in the Smoky Hills of Kansas, the Arkansas River valley across southeastern Colorado, and the Colorado Front Range. G. K. Gilbert observed that of Meek and Hayden's five Cretaceous units, only the Benton and Niobrara (incidentally the Colorado Group) were chalky; moreover, the chalkiness was expressed as curiously rhythmic bedding. A well-known glaciologist, Gilbert correctly theorized that the reason for these peculiar rhythmites was periodic astronomical solar forcing, and that these rhythms were absent in the Pierre only because there was no source of carbonate in the Pierre environment. His theory was confirmed with recognitions that Milankovitch cycles can be expressed in conditions of total global absence of glaciers.[10][11][12] Gilbert subsequently replaced the Benton with five formations based on the changes he observed in the chalkiness; non-chalky Graneros, chalky Greenhorn, non-chalky Carlile, massively chalky Timpas (later abandoned in favor of Fort Hays), and chalky Apishapa (later abandoned in favor of Smoky Hill).[13]
The Colorado Classification was initially adopted throughout the extent of the Western Interior Seaway, including Canada. However, in the 21st Century, some states, such as Wyoming and Montana, are abandoning the term.[14]Donald E. Hattin advised that the Colorado Group should not be used in Kansas because he considered its units to be "too lithologically diverse";[15] yet, Colorado Group remains listed in the geologic succession in Kansas.[16]
Shales of middle Albian to Santonian age are distributed throughout much of the former extent of the Western Interior Seaway, including broadly from Arizona, to Iowa and Alberta. The Greenhorn-Carlile contact represents the maximum extent of the seaway of that sequence, perhaps of the entire time of the seaway; and, so, coupled with the Graneros Shale, the "old Benton" shales are the widest durable remnant of the Western Interior Seaway.[18] Older literature may use the term Colorado Group in this extent, but several states outside of Colorado no longer use the term in current publications; nevertheless, the evidence of correlated seaway sequences and fossil patterns remains, regardless of current names.
From Iowa to Arizona, the lithology is remarkably consistent and the bentonites and rhythmic chalk beds of the upper Greenhorn especially are geologic events that can be traced over that distance.[19] Beyond the historic western extent of the Colorado Group usage into the Mancos Shale, the chalky beds of the group can be identified and are named accordingly, e.g, Smoky Hill, Fort Hays, Bridge Creek, Greenhorn.[20] However, northwest of the Transcontinental Arch where western sediment sources are more dominant, altering the lithology, these names have less current use.
The Canadian Colorado Group occurs in the sub-surface throughout southern and central Alberta, western and central Saskatchewan. It is found in outcrops along the south-western edge of the Canadian Shield. The sediments of the Colorado group exceed 1,000 metres (3,280 ft) in thickness in central Alberta. In central Saskatchewan, it thins to 150 metres (490 ft).[1]
The Colorado Group in Canada, which retains the Santonian-time Pierre Shale correlations, is divided into an upper part which is calcareous, and a lower part, which is non-calcareous. The sub-units are defined at the base of two regional markers, called First and Second White Speckled Shale characterized by coccolithic debris.
The Canadian Geological Survey classification of the Colorado Group includes the following sub-units, from top to bottom:
Canadian classification of regional Colorado Group subunits
^F. V. Hayden, United States Geologist (1871). "IX. Sketch of the geological formations along the route of the Union Pacific Railway, Eastern Division". Final Reports of the United States Geological Survey of Nebraska and Portions of the Adjacent Territories. House Documents, otherwise Publ. as Executive Documents United States. Congress. House. Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 66–69. Retrieved 2018-10-04. At Hays City the massive rocky layers of No. 3 are sawed into blocks, and employed in the construction of buildings. ... About eight miles west of Hays City there are about 60 feet exposed, of the dark clays of No. 2, of the Fort Benton Group.
^Hague, A. and Emmons, S.E., 1877. Descriptive geology. U.S. geological exploration of the fortieth parallel, v.2.
^Donald E. Hattin (1965). Stratigraphy of the Graneros Shale (Upper Cretaceous) in Central Kansas, Kansas Geological Survey, Bulletin 178. University of Kansas Publications, State Geological Survey of Kansas. p. Stratigraphy). Retrieved 2021-05-20. Later, Hayden (1876, p. 45) coined the term "Colorado Group" for No. 2 (Fort Benton), No. 3 (Niobrara), and No.4 (Pierre) of Hall and Meek's Nebraska section. The Colorado Group was restricted by White (1878, p. 21) to units No. 2 and No. 3 and has remained thus defined to the present.
^White, C. A., 1878, Report on the geology of a portion of northwestern Colorado: U.S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Territories, Ann. Rept, 10, p. 5-60.
^Donald E. Hattin and Charles T. Siemers (1978). "Upper Cretaceous Stratigraphy and Depositional Environments of Western Kansas". Kansas Geological Survey Guidebook (3). Kansas Geological Survey. During the last decade of the 19th Century, considerable attention was focused upon the classification and description of Cretaceous rocks in western Kansas.
^Alan F. Arbogast, William C. Johnson (1996). Surficial geology and stratigraphy of Russell County, Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey Technical Series. Vol. 7. Retrieved 2021-05-21. Regarding the inclusion of all Cretaceous rocks in Russell County within the Colorado Group, Hattin (personal communication) suggests that the term Colorado Group be discontinued because the units are too lithologically diverse to be included within one group. As a result, the term Colorado Group is not used in this report.
^Glass, D.J. (editor) 1997. Lexicon of Canadian Stratigraphy, vol. 4, Western Canada including eastern British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba, p. 452. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, Calgary, 1423 p. on CD-ROM. ISBN0-920230-23-7.
^Glass, D.J. (editor) 1997. Lexicon of Canadian Stratigraphy, vol. 4, Western Canada including eastern British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba, p. 1052. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, Calgary, 1423 p. on CD-ROM. ISBN0-920230-23-7.
