Construction of Cologne Cathedral began in 1248 but was halted in the years around 1560,[8] unfinished. Attempts to complete the construction began around 1814 but the project was not properly funded until the 1840s. The edifice was completed to its original medieval plan in 1880.[9] The towers for its two huge spires give the cathedral the largest façade of any church in the world.
Cologne's medieval builders had planned a grand structure to house the reliquary of the Three Kings and fit for its role as a place of worship for the Holy Roman Emperor. Despite having been left incomplete during the medieval period, Cologne Cathedral eventually became unified as "a masterpiece of exceptional intrinsic value" and "a powerful testimony to the strength and persistence of Christian belief in medieval and modern Europe".[5] In Cologne, only the telecommunications tower is higher than the cathedral.[4]
Predecessor buildings
Merovingian episcopal church
Maternus of Cologne was the first bishop of Cologne in around 313.[10] However, Cologne's Christian community, still small at this time, did not gather in a church, but in a residential building, which is thought to have been located on the cathedral hill below today's choir.[11] After the collapse of Roman rule on the Rhine, the Merovingian petty kings residing in Cologne built an episcopal church on this site in the 6th century, which was eventually around 40 to 50 meters long and equipped with an ambon. This building, which was probably built by King Theudebert I, served as a burial place for the royal family; among others, the king's wife Wisigard was buried here around 537. However, the excavation finds under the cathedral choir do not allow a complete reconstruction of the buildings from the Merovingian period.[12]
Baptistry
Early Christian testimony: Baptistery east to the cathedral choir
Already in late antiquity, there was a baptistery to the east of the cathedral choir, where the early Christians, following the rite of the time, stepped into knee-deep water and were completely doused. It is assumed that the baptismal font (piscina), which dates back to the 5th century, was originally located in the garden of the Roman house that served as a Christian meeting place.[13] Later, the baptistry built above the pool was presumably combined with the cathedral church to form a single building complex, although there is no archaeological evidence of this today.[14] When Hildebold Cathedral was built and equipped with a baptismal font due to the changed rite, only the baptismal piscina remained from the baptistery. [15] Today, this piscina, which is accessible in the base of the cathedral, is considered the oldest evidence of Christian worship in Cologne.[16]
Hildebold Cathedral
Ottonian architectural drawing: Hildebold Cathedral in the Hillinus CodexLegendary relic: St. Peter's staff from the Cologne Cathedral treasury
In Carolingian times, the Old Cathedral was built on Cologne Cathedral Hill and consecrated in 870.[17] The cathedral is now known as Hildebold Cathedral after Bishop Hildebold, who was a close advisor to Charlemagne and died in 818. However, it is unclear how much the bishop contributed to the building. He probably started the new construction, which Charlemagne also generously supported.[18] The bishop's residence was originally located next to the cathedral.
With a length of around 95 meters, Hildebold Cathedral was one of the largest Carolingian churches ever built and became the architectural rolemodel for numerous churches in the early Holy Roman Empire. It was built in the Carolingian tradition as a basilica with two choirs, with the east choir dedicated to Mary, mother of Jesus and the more important choir in the west to the memory of Saint Peter. Through its patronage, but also in its architecture, Hildebold Cathedral made reference to Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome[19] and was regarded as the St. Peter's Basilica of the North. This was intended to underline Cologne's claim to be a holy city and faithful daughter of the Roman Church.[20] The so-called reliquary-staff of Saint Peter and the chains of Saint Peter were among the church's most important relics.[21] The Hillinus Codex from the 11th century shows Hildebold Cathedral in an unusually realistic depiction for the time. [22] Today, the foundation walls of the Carolingian basilica have been revealed by the cathedral excavations.[23]
On 23 July 1164, the Archbishop of Cologne and Imperial ArchchancellorRainald of Dassel brought the bones of the Three Wise Men from Milan to Cologne, which was perceived as a "propaganda success".[24] The relics had been left to the archbishop by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa from his spoils of war. They had been considered worthy of veneration at least since their transfer. Whether Rainald von Dassel himself or the Milanese patricians should be regarded as the "inventors" of the relics is disputed in academic literature.[25] In any case, between 1190 and 1225, the Shrine of the Three Kings was made for the highly respected saints in Cologne, which is considered one of the most sophisticated goldsmith's works of the Middle Ages; the shrine was placed in the center of the Old Cathedral.[26] Cologne thus became an internationally renowned place of pilgrimage in Europe. [27] To oversee the pilgrim crowds, an office of custos regum ("guardian of the kings") was established after 1162.[28] However, the only narrow side portal of the cathedral was not very suitable for the crowds of pilgrims, as it had to be used as an entrance and an exit at the same time.[29]
With the construction of the Gothic cathedral in 1248, the Old Cathedral was to be demolished step by step. However, careless demolition work and fire destroyed not only the east choir, but almost the entire cathedral; the Shrine of the Three Kings was saved from the fire. The western parts of Hildebold Cathedral were provisionally rebuilt and were only taken down after 1322, when the Gothic choir was completed and construction of the Gothic nave began. [30]
Building history of the Gothic cathedral
Medieval beginning
The foundation stone was laid on Saturday, 15 August 1248, by Archbishop Konrad von Hochstaden.[31] The eastern arm was completed under the direction of Master Gerhard, was consecrated in 1322 and sealed off by a temporary wall so it could be used as the work continued. Eighty-four misericords in the choir date from this building phase.[citation needed]. This work ceased in 1473, leaving the south tower complete to the belfry level and crowned with a huge crane that remained in place as a landmark of the Cologne skyline for 400 years.[32][page needed] Some work proceeded intermittently on the structure of the nave between the west front and the eastern arm, but during the 16th century this also stopped.[33][page needed]
The unfinished cathedral in 1820, engraved by Henry Winkles. The huge crane on the tower of the cathedral is visible in the picture.
The unfinished cathedral in 1855. The medieval crane was still in place, while constructions for the nave had been resumed earlier in 1814.
The unfinished cathedral in 1856. The east end had been finished and roofed, while other parts of the building are in various stages of construction.
19th-century completion
The cathedral in 1880, nearing the end of its construction.
With the 19th-century Romantic enthusiasm for the Middle Ages, and spurred by the discovery of the original plan for the façade, the Protestant Prussian Court working with the church, committed to complete the cathedral. It was achieved by civic effort; the Central-Dombauverein, founded in 1842, raised two-thirds of the enormous costs, while the Prussian state supplied the remaining third.[citation needed] The state saw this as a way to improve its relations with the large number of Catholic subjects it had gained in 1815, but especially after 1871, it was regarded as a project to symbolize German nationhood.[34]
Work resumed in 1842 to the original design of the surviving medieval plans and drawings, but using more modern construction techniques, including iron roof girders. The nave was completed and the towers were added. The bells were installed in the 1870s. The largest bell is St. Petersglocke.[citation needed]
The completion of Germany's largest cathedral was celebrated as a national event on 15 October 1880, 632 years after construction had begun.[35] The celebration was attended by Emperor Wilhelm I. With a height of 157.38 m (516.3 ft), it was the tallest building in the world for four years until the completion of the Washington Monument.[36]
World War II and post-war history
The twin spires of the cathedral were an easily recognizable navigational landmark for Allied aircraft bombing during World War II.[37] The cathedral suffered fourteen hits by aerial bombs during the war. Badly damaged, it nevertheless remained standing in an otherwise completely flattened city.
On 6 March 1945, an area west of the cathedral (Marzellenstrasse/Trankgasse) was the site of intense combat between American tanks of the 3rd Armored Division and a Panther Ausf. A of Panzer brigade 106 Feldherrnhalle. A nearby Panther, a German medium tank, was sitting by a pile of rubble near a train station right by the twin spires of the Cologne Cathedral. The Panther successfully knocked out two Sherman tanks, killing three men, before it was destroyed by a T26E3 Pershing, nicknamed Eagle 7, minutes later. Film footage of that battle survives.[38]
Repairs of the war damage were completed in 1956. A repair to part of the northwest tower, carried out in 1944 using poor-quality brick taken from a nearby ruined building, remained visible as a reminder of the war until 2005, when it was restored to its original appearance.
To investigate whether the bombings had damaged the foundations of the Dom, archaeological excavations began in 1946 under the leadership of Otto Doppelfeld and were concluded in 1997. One of the most meaningful excavations of churches, they revealed previously unknown details of earlier buildings on the site.[39]
Repair and maintenance work is constantly being carried out in the building, which is rarely free of scaffolding, as wind, rain, and pollution slowly eat away at the stones. The Dombauhütte, established to build the cathedral and keep it in repair, employs skilled stonemasons for the purpose. Half the costs of repair and maintenance are still borne by the Dombauverein.[citation needed]
The west front of the completed cathedral in 1911
US soldier and destroyed Panther tank, 4 April 1945
On 25 August 2007, the cathedral received a new stained glass window in the south transept. The 113 m2 (1,220 sq ft) glass work was created by the German artist Gerhard Richter with the €400,000 cost paid by donations. It is composed of 11,500 identically sized pieces of coloured glass resembling pixels, randomly arranged by computer, which create a colourful "carpet". Since the loss of the original window in World War II, the space had been temporarily filled with plain glass.[41] The then archbishop of the cathedral, Cardinal Joachim Meisner, who had preferred a figurative depiction of 20th-century Catholic martyrs for the window, did not attend the unveiling.[42] Holder of the office since 2014 is Cardinal Rainer Maria Woelki.
On 5 January 2015, the cathedral remained dark as floodlights were switched off to protest a demonstration by PEGIDA.[43]
World Heritage Site
Cologne Cathedral on the banks of Rhine
In 1996, the cathedral was added to the UNESCOWorld Heritage List of culturally important sites.[9] In 2004, it was placed on the "World Heritage in Danger" list, as the only Western site in danger, due to plans to construct several high-rise buildings nearby, which would have visually impacted the site.[44][45] The cathedral was removed from the "in danger" list in 2006, following the authorities' decision to limit the heights of buildings constructed near and around the cathedral.[46]
As a World Heritage Site and host to the Shrine of the Three Kings, Cologne Cathedral is a major attraction for tourists and pilgrims, and is one of the oldest and most important pilgrimage sites of Northern Europe.[47] Visitors can climb 533 stone steps of the spiral staircase to a viewing platform about 100 m (330 ft) above the ground.[48] The platform gives a scenic view over the Rhine.
Ongoing renovation
Never without scaffolding: the stones on the cathedral require constant renewal
The cathedral is a medieval building that was built very solidly from a structural point of view. At the same time, however, the stone structure requires continuous maintenance and renovation.[49] The cathedral's master builder Barbara Schock-Werner said: "Cologne Cathedral without scaffolding is not a pipe dream, but a nightmare. It would mean that we would no longer be able to afford the cathedral."[50]
In fact, the completed cathedral was only visible without scaffolding for a few years. After the official completion of the cathedral in 1880, finishing work continued for around 20 years. Shortly before his death in 1902, master builder Richard Voigtel publicly stated that the cathedral had finally been completed. However, after the wings of an angel figure fell from the façade in 1906, the cathedral master builders resumed the renovation work.[51]
The cathedral is built from different types of rock, which weather to varying degrees due to their characteristics.[52] The filigree buttresses and arches are exposed to the weather from all sides[53] and are attacked by water, the sulphur content of the air and bird droppings.[54] Especially from the 1960s onwards, acid rain severely affected the stones and turned them increasingly black. It was only from the 1990s onwards that air pollution control measures reduced the level of pollution.[55]
The Schlaitdorf sandstone, which was used from 1842 onwards for the transept façades and the upper parts of the nave and transept, shows the most intensive weathering. It is therefore constantly being renewed and until the 1980s was preferably replaced with Londorf basalt lava, which is considered to be very weather-resistant, but is not sandy beige, but grey in color.[56] Since the 1990s, however, the cathedral master builders have endeavored to carry out the restoration with stones that come as close as possible to the original sandstone.[57] The cathedral works (Dombauhütte) has already tested numerous means of preserving the stones. A convincing method has not yet been found.[58] In addition, the iron anchors and dowels that hold the many parts of the architectural decoration are also beginning to rust. They are threatening to crack the stones and need to be replaced with steel parts. "It is therefore foreseeable that no one alive today will ever see the cathedral without scaffolding."[59]
Regular renovation work is required due to sporadic earthquake damage. For example, during the 1992 Roermond earthquake, the 400 kg finial on the eastern pinnacle of the southern transept gable broke off, smashed through the roof and damaged the roof truss. Four other finials were loosened.[60]
From May to November 2021, a remote-controlled drone took 200,000 high-resolution photos of all parts of the façade from a distance of five to seven meters and assembled them into a digital 3D model of the cathedral, which offers a very accurate representation with 25 billion polygons. This makes it possible to precisely document the current condition and the need for conservation and restoration, even in remote areas. The 3D model has a size of 50 gigabytes. The cost of creating the model was in the six-figure range.[61][62]
The ground plan design of Cologne Cathedral was based closely on that of Amiens Cathedral, as is the style and the width to height proportion of the central nave. The plan is in the shape of a Latin Cross, as is usual with Gothic cathedrals. It has two aisles on either side, which help support one of the very highest Gothic vaults in the world, being nearly as tall as that of the Beauvais Cathedral, much of which collapsed. Externally the outward thrust of the vault is taken by flying buttresses in the French manner. The eastern end has a single ambulatory, the second aisle resolving into a chevet of seven radiating chapels.[citation needed]
Internally, the medieval choir is more varied and less mechanical in its details than the 19th-century building. It presents a French style arrangement of very tall arcade, a delicate narrow triforium gallery lit by windows and with detailed tracery merging with that of the windows above. The clerestory windows are tall and retain some old figurative glass in the lower sections. The whole is united by the tall shafts that sweep unbroken from the floor to their capitals at the spring of the vault. The vault is of plain quadripartite arrangement.
The choir retains a great many of its original fittings, including the carved stalls, despite French Revolutionary troops having desecrated the building. A large stone statue of St Christopher looks down towards the place where the earlier entrance to the cathedral was, before its completion in the late 19th century.
The nave has many 19th century stained glass windows. A set of five on the south side, called the Bayernfenster, were a gift from Ludwig I of Bavaria, and strongly represent the painterly German style of the time.
Externally, particularly from a distance, the building is dominated by its huge spires, which are entirely Germanic in character, being openwork like those of Ulm, Vienna, Strasbourg and Regensburg Cathedrals.[63]
An aerial view shows the cruciform plan.
The cathedral from the south
The exterior of one of the spires
The main entrance shows the 19th century decoration.
The flying buttresses and pinnacles of the Medieval east end
One of the treasures of the cathedral is the high altar, which was installed in 1322. It is constructed of black marble, with a solid slab 15 ft (4.6 m) long forming the top. The front and sides are overlaid with white marble niches into which are set figures, with the Coronation of the Virgin at the centre. Joan Holladay has discussed the iconography of the high altar in the cathedral.[64]
The most celebrated work of art in the cathedral is the Shrine of the Three Kings, commissioned by Philip von Heinsberg, archbishop of Cologne from 1167 to 1191 and created by Nicholas of Verdun, begun in 1190. It is traditionally believed to hold the remains of the Three Wise Men, whose relics were acquired by Frederick Barbarossa at the conquest of Milan in 1164. The shrine takes the form of a large reliquary in the shape of a basilican church, made of bronze and silver, gilded and ornamented with architectonic details, figurative sculpture, enamels and gemstones. The shrine was opened in 1864 and was found to contain bones and garments.
Near the sacristy is the Gero Crucifix,[65] a large crucifix carved in oak and with traces of paint and gilding. Believed to have been commissioned around 960 for Archbishop Gero, it is the oldest large crucifix north of the Alps and the earliest-known large free-standing Northern sculpture of the medieval period.[66][page needed]
In the Sacrament Chapel is the Mailänder Madonna ("Milan Madonna"), a high Gothic carving, depicting the Blessed Virgin and the infant Jesus. It was made in the Cologne Cathedral workshop sometime around 1290 as a replacement for the original which was lost in a fire. The altar of the patron saints of Cologne with an altarpiece by the International Gothic painter Stefan Lochner is in the Marienkapelle ("St. Mary's Chapel").
After completion in 1265, the radiating chapels were immediately taken into service as a burial place. The relics of Saint Irmgardis found a final resting place in the St. Agnes' Chapel. Her trachytesarcophagus is considered to be created by the cathedral masons' guild around 1280.[67]
Other works of art are in the Cathedral Treasury.
Embedded in the interior wall are a pair of stone tablets on which are carved the provisions formulated by Archbishop Englebert II (1262–67) under which Jews were permitted to reside in Cologne.[68]
The cathedral has eleven church bells, four of which are medieval. The first was the 3.8-tonne Dreikönigsglocke ("Bell of the Three Kings"), cast in 1418, installed in 1437, and recast in 1880. Two of the other bells, the Pretiosa (10.5 tonnes; at that time the largest bell in the Western world) and the Speciosa (5.6 tonnes) were installed in 1448 and remain in place today.
Petersglocke; a person stands to the right of bell clapper.
During the 19th century, as the building neared completion, there was a desire to increase the number of bells. This was facilitated by Kaiser Wilhelm I who gave French bronze cannon, captured in 1870–71, for this purpose.[70] The 22 pieces of artillery were displayed outside the cathedral on 11 May 1872. Andreas Hamm in Frankenthal used them to cast a bell of over 27,000 kilos on 19 August 1873. The tone was not harmonious and another attempt was made on 13 November 1873. The Central Cathedral Association, which had agreed to take over the costs, did not want this bell either. Another attempt took place on 3 October 1874. The colossal bell was shipped to Cologne and on 13 May 1875, installed in the cathedral. This Kaiserglocke was eventually melted in 1918 to support the German war effort. The Kaiserglocke was the largest free-swinging bell in history.
Sound of St. Petersglocke
The 24-tonne St. Petersglocke ("Bell of St. Peter", "Decke Pitter" in the Kölsch language or in common parlance known as "Dicker Pitter"), was cast in 1922 and was the largest free-swinging bell in the world, until a new bell was cast in Innsbruck for the People's Salvation Cathedral in Bucharest, Romania.[71] This bell is only rung on eight major holidays such as Easter and Christmas.
On Thursday, 3 March 2022, landmark cathedrals across Europe chimed in unison "in a gesture of solidarity with Ukraine, as bystanders gathered to mourn those killed during Russia's invasion and pray for peace." The Kölner Dom was among them.[72]
^Leonard Ennen, Der Dom in Köln von seinem Beginne bis zu seiner Vollendung: Festschrift gewidmet den Freunden und Gönnern aus Anlass der Vollendung vom Verstande des Central-Dombauvereins [The cathedral in Cologne from its begin to its completion: Festschrift dedicated to the friends and patrons on the occasion of the completion of the understanding of the Central Cathedral Building Association], 1880, p. 79
^ ab"Cologne Cathedral". UNESCO World Heritage. Archived from the original on 15 April 2020. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
^Werner Eck: Frühes Christentum in Köln. In: Ulrich Krings, Rainer Will (ed.): Das Baptisterium am Dom , Kölns erster Taufort. Köln 2009, pp. 11–21, here p. 12.
^Georg Hauser: Schichten und Geschichte unter dem Dom, die Kölner Domgrabung, Köln 2003, p. 19.
^Georg Hauser: Schichten und Geschichte unter dem Dom, die Kölner Domgrabung. Köln 2003, p. 25.
^Georg Hauser: Schichten und Geschichte unter dem Dom, die Kölner Domgrabung. Köln 2003, p. 42f.
^Werner Eck: Frühes Christentum in Köln. In: Ulrich Krings, Rainer Will (Ed.): Das Baptisterium am Dom, Kölns erster Taufort. Köln 2009, p. 11–21, here p. 19. Sebastian Ristow: Das Kölner Baptisterium am Dom und die frühchristlichen Tauforte nördlich der Alpen, in: Ulrich Krings, Rainer Will (Ed.): Das Baptisterium am Dom, Kölns erster Taufort, Köln 2009, p. 23–43, here p. 29f.
^Sebastian Ristow: Das Kölner Baptisterium am Dom und die frühchristlichen Tauforte nördlich der Alpen. In: Ulrich Krings, Rainer Will (Ed.): Das Baptisterium am Dom, Kölns erster Taufort. Köln 2009, p. 23–43, here p. 31.
^Bernd Streitberger: Was wird aus dem Baptisterium am Dom? In: Ulrich Krings, Rainer Will (Ed.): Das Baptisterium am Dom. Kölns erster Taufort. Köln 2009, p. 91–98.
^ Matthias Untermann: Zur Kölner Domweihe von 870; in: Rheinische Vierteljahresblätter 47 (1983); pp. 335–342
^Karl Ubl: Köln im Frühmittelalter. Die Entstehung einer heiligen Stadt, Köln 2022, p. 188.
^Lex Bosman: Vorbild und Zitat in der mittelalterlichen Architektur am Beispiel des Alten Domes in Köln. In: Uta-Maria Bräuer, Emanuel Klinkenberg, Jeroen Westerman: Kunst & Region, Architektur und Kunst im Mittelalter. Utrecht 2005, pp. 45–69.
^Rüdiger Marco Booz: Kölner Dom, die vollkommene Kathedrale. Petersberg 2022, p. 17.
^Georg Hauser: Zur Archäologie des Petrusstabes. In: Kölner Domblatt. 76, 2011, p. 197–217.
^Holger Simon: Architekturdarstellungen in der ottonischen Buchmalerei, Der Alte Kölner Dom im Hillinus-Codex. In: Stefanie Lieb (Ed.): Form und Stil, Festschrift für Günther Binding zum 65. Geburtstag. Darmstadt 2001, p. 32–45.
^ Uwe Lobbedey: Rezension zu ‚Ulrich Back, Thomas Höltken und Dorothea Hochkirchen, Der Alte Dom zu Köln. Befunde
und Funde zur vorgotischen Kathedrale‘; in: Bonner Jahrbücher 213 (2013/2014), p. 503– 509
^Rüdiger Marco Booz: Kölner Dom, die vollkommene Kathedrale, Petersberg 2022, p. 26.
^Rüdiger Marco Booz: Kölner Dom, die vollkommene Kathedrale, Petersberg 2022, p. 26.
^Ulrich Back: Die Reliquien der Heiligen Drei Könige im Alten Dom, in: Leonie Becks, Matthias Deml, Klaus Hardering: Caspar Melchior Balthasar. 850 Jahre Verehrung der Heiligen Drei Könige im Kölner Dom, Köln 2014, p. 23–27.
^Bernard Gui: Manuale de l‘Inquisiteur, hrsg. von G. Mollat und G. Drioux, Bd. 1, Paris 1926, p. 56.
^Alheydis Plassmann, Martin Bock: Art. Köln – Domstift. In: Nordrheinisches Klosterbuch. Lexikon der Stifte und Klöster bis 1815. Teil 3: Köln. Franz Schmitt, Siegburg 2022, p. 157–198, here p. 160.
^Clemens Kosch: Kölns Romanische Kirchen: Architektur und Liturgie im Hochmittelalter. Regensburg 2005, p. 14f.
^Rüdiger Marco Booz: Kölner Dom, die vollkommene Kathedrale, Petersberg 2022, p. 58, 87.
^Lewis, Robert (13 September 2017). "Cologne Cathedral". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 16 August 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
^"In the Ruins of Cologne". The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. 5 March 2020. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
^Christopher Miskimon (November 2019). "Clash of Heavy Tanks at Cologne". Warfare History Network. Archived from the original on 15 November 2024. Retrieved 28 October 2024.
^Klaus Gereon Beuckers: Der Kölner Dom, Darmstadt 2004, S. 113.
^"Germany Pegida protests: Rallies over 'Islamisation'". BBC News. 6 January 2015. Archived from the original on 6 January 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2015. In Cologne, the authorities switched off the lights of the city's cathedral as a way of warning Pegida supporters they were supporting 'extremists'. 'We don't think of it as a protest, but we would like to make the many conservative Christians [who support Pegida] think about what they are doing,' the dean of the cathedral, Norbert Feldhoff, told the BBC.
^Arnold Wolff: Die Gefährdung des Domes und die Arbeit der Dombauhütte, in: Arnold Wolff, Toni Diederich: Das Kölner Dom Lese- und Bilderbuch, Köln 1990, p. 73.
^Arnold Wolff: Die Gefährdung des Domes und die Arbeit der Dombauhütte, in: Arnold Wolff, Toni Diederich: Das Kölner Dom Lese- und Bilderbuch, Köln 1990, p. 82.
^Arnold Wolff: Die Gefährdung des Domes und die Arbeit der Dombauhütte, in: Arnold Wolff, Toni Diederich: Das Kölner Dom Lese- und Bilderbuch, Köln 1990, p. 80.
^Holladay, Joan A. (1989). "The Iconography of the High Altar in Cologne Cathedral". Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte. 52 (Bd., H. 4): 472–498. doi:10.2307/1482466. JSTOR1482466.
^Reiner Dieckhoff: Die mittelalterliche Ausstattung des Kölner Domes, in Arnold Wolff (ed.): Der gotische Dom in Köln; Vista Point Verlag, Köln 2008, p. 47.
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Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Chiari (disambigua). Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento centri abitati della Lombardia non cita le fonti necessarie o quelle presenti sono insufficienti. Puoi migliorare questa voce aggiungendo citazioni da fonti attendibili secondo le linee guida sull'uso delle fonti. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Chiaricomune Chiari – VedutaVista aerea di Chiari LocalizzazioneStato Italia Regione Lombardia Pr...
Bone in the human skull Frontal bonePosition of the frontal bone (highlighted in green).Animation of the frontal boneDetailsArticulationsTwelve bones: the sphenoid, the ethmoid, the two parietals, the two nasals, the two maxillae, the two lacrimals, and the two zygomaticsIdentifiersLatinos frontaleMeSHD005624TA98A02.1.03.001TA2520FMA52734Anatomical terms of bone[edit on Wikidata] In the human skull, the frontal bone or sincipital bone is a unpaired bone which consists of two portions.[...
Track and field event For the World War II plot, see Operation Long Jump. For the programming function, see longjmp. Not to be confused with standing long jump. AthleticsLong jumpLong jump at the 2013 IPC Athletics World ChampionshipsWorld recordsMen Mike Powell 8.95 m (29 ft 4+1⁄4 in) (1991)Women Galina Chistyakova 7.52 m (24 ft 8 in) (1988)Olympic recordsMen Bob Beamon 8.90 m (29 ft 2+1⁄4 in) A (1968)Women Jackie Joyner-Kersee 7....
Jewish women in Jazz in the 20th and 21st centuries The Barry Sisters, a Jazz duo that combined elements of Jewish music with Jazz Jewish women have played an important role in the development of Jazz as achieved success in the field as vocalists, instrumentalists, and in Jazz' musical business. The impact of Jewish identity on these musicians' work varies, with their Jewishness intersecting intriguingly with other aspects of their identities, particularly their femininity. During the swing e...
ماركو دي فايو معلومات شخصية الميلاد 15 يوليو 1976 (العمر 47 سنة)روما الطول 1.80 م (5 قدم 11 بوصة)[1][1] مركز اللعب مهاجم الجنسية إيطاليا مسيرة الشباب سنوات فريق 1991–1994 لاتسيو المسيرة الاحترافية1 سنوات فريق م. (هـ.) 1993–1995 لاتسيو 8 (3) 1995–1996 هيلاس فيرونا 7 (1) 1996–1997 باري 27...
لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع صفصاف (توضيح). اضغط هنا للاطلاع على كيفية قراءة التصنيف الفصيلة الصفصافية الصفصاف الأبيض المرتبة التصنيفية جنس[1] التصنيف العلمي المملكة: النبات الشعبة: البذريات الشعيبة: مستورات البذور الرتبة: ملبيغيات الفصيلة: الصفصافية الاسم العلمي Salix[...
Water poloat the Games of the XXIV OlympiadVenueJamsil Indoor Swimming PoolDates21 September – 1 October 1988Competitors156 from 12 nationsMedalists Yugoslavia United States Soviet Union← 19841992 → Water polo at the 1988 Summer Olympics as usual was part of the swimming sport, the other two being swimming and diving. They were not seen as three separate sports, because they all were governed by one federation — FINA. Water polo disci...
State Legislative Assembly Constituency in Tamil Nadu 12°44′06″N 77°49′44″E / 12.735°N 77.829°E / 12.735; 77.829 HosurConstituency No. 55 for the Tamil Nadu Legislative AssemblyConstituency detailsCountryIndiaRegionSouth IndiaStateTamil NaduDistrictKrishnagiriLS constituencyKrishnagiriTotal electors3,51,715[1]ReservationNoneMember of Legislative Assembly16th Tamil Nadu Legislative AssemblyIncumbent Y. Prakaash Party DMKElected year2021 Ho...
Die Energieeffizienz ist das Verhältnis von Dienstleistungs-, Waren- oder Energieertrag (Output) zur zugeführten Energie (Input) (vgl. Energieeffizienz-Richtlinie 2012/27/EU[1]). Unter Energieeffizienz wird somit also die rationelle Verwendung von Energie verstanden. Durch optimierte Prozesse sollen „die quantitativen und qualitativen Verluste, die im Einzelnen bei der Wandlung, dem Transport und der Speicherung von Energie“ entstehen, minimiert werden, „um einen vorgegebenen ...
Cet article est une ébauche concernant une localité hongroise. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. Bezenye(hr) Bizonja Panneau de signalisation Blason de BezenyeDrapeau de Bezenye Géolocalisation sur la carte : Győr-Moson-Sopron Bezenye Bezenye Bezenye Administration Pays Hongrie Comitat (megye) Győr-Moson-Sopron (Transdanubie occidentale) District (járás) Mosonmagyaróvár Rang Com...
2020 non-fiction book by Catherine Katz The Daughters of Yalta:The Churchills, Roosevelts and Harrimans: A Story of Love and War First edition (US)AuthorCatherine Grace KatzLanguageEnglishSubjectWorld War IIGenreNon-fictionPublisherHoughton Mifflin Harcourt (US)HarperCollins (UK)Publication dateSeptember 29, 2020Publication placeUnited StatesMedia typePrintPages416[1]ISBN978-0-358-11782-7 (Hardcover)Dewey Decimal940.53141 The Daughters of Yalta: The Churchills, Roosevelts and Har...
В Википедии есть статьи о других людях с такой фамилией, см. Малышев; Малышев, Сергей. Сергей Иванович Малышев Дата рождения 30 мая 1884(1884-05-30) или 30 апреля 1884(1884-04-30)[1] Место рождения с. Пузачи Тимского уезда Курской губернии, Дата смерти 9 мая 1967(1967-05-09)[1] Место...
Production and usage of metal in ancient Rome This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (October 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Roman Chronology Context for Metallurgy (Shepard 1993) circa 753 BC First settlement in the Iron Age; see also founding of Rome. 600–524 BC Etruscans control Italy. 550–500 BC Carthaginian occupation of pa...
Pour les articles homonymes, voir Confluence. La Confluence Le bassin nautique de la Confluence Administration Pays France Région Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Métropole Métropole de Lyon Ville Lyon Arrondissement municipal 2e arrondissement Démographie Population 12 000 hab. (en comptant le quartier Perrache jusqu'au cours Verdun-Gensoul, 2020[1]) Densité 8 000 hab./km2 Étapes d’urbanisation XXIe Géographie Coordonnées 45° 44′ 28″ nord, 4°...
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