艾德溫·史密斯紙草文稿

艾德溫·史密斯紙草文稿第6, 7頁, New York Academy of Medicine英语New York Academy of Medicine收藏

艾德溫·史密斯紙草文稿》(Edwin Smith Papyrus)是約於西元前1600-1700年間完成的醫學論文集[1]:70,也是人類史上第一部關於創傷的外科醫學著作,由莎草紙寫成,長約5公尺(因為損毀只剩下4.68公尺),寬約33公分,17頁(377行)撰寫於正面,5頁(92行)背面。這份手稿的長度僅次於西元前1550左右完成的埃伯斯紙草文稿

此紙草文稿的作者不詳,依筆跡看來,文稿的大部分內容為同一人於同一時期抄寫,只有其中一小部分是由第二位抄寫員抄寫的[1]:71。美國考古學家詹姆斯·亨利·布雷斯特德猜測文稿的作者是埃及史上第一位留名的醫師印何闐,但他也強調這個猜測只是個沒有任何根據的純粹猜想[2]:9

撰寫方式

這份文件的撰寫方式也十分科學,從「標題」、「檢查」、「診斷」(有容易醫治、不易醫治以及無法醫治三個選項)、「治療」到「備註」,標準化的的詳細記載方式類似今日西方醫學的臨床診療指引

內文結構

埃及人不重視大腦,做木乃伊的時候會把大腦從鼻孔鉤出來丟掉(體腔內的內臟則是罐裝保存),但這份文稿卻是史上第一次文中指稱「腦」這個器官的文件,不但提及腦膜脊髓腦脊液等等部位,並載有降低顱內壓開顱手術,可謂最早的神經外科醫學文獻。另外,對於脊椎傷害、下巴脫臼、各種骨折等等的診療方式也有十分精確的記載,包括九十個解剖學詞彙以及四十八篇外傷相關文章。相對地,因為埃及人對於疾病定義的關係,這份文稿很少提及其他的疾病。

艾德溫·史密斯

艾德溫·史密斯(1822-1906)是這份手稿的第一位已知持有者,因此這份文稿以他為名。史密斯是個定居於開羅的放貸者和古董商,傳說也從事贗品製作,於1862年購買到這份手稿,死後同一年其女李奧諾拉(Leonora)把手稿贈送給紐約歷史協會,並於1920年由芝加哥大學詹姆斯·亨利·布雷斯特德翻譯,亞諾·B·路克哈特(Arno B. Luckhardt)醫師加註,於1930年由芝加哥大學出版。

布雷斯特德不但翻譯這份文稿,並且推崇印何闐為先於希波克拉底,真正的醫學之神。印何闐比希波克拉底的年代早了兩千年,埃及醫學也曾傳播至希臘文明中,只是印何闐在本位主義的活動中被除名罷了。

古埃及的醫學、魔法與宗教

古埃及對於「健康」的概念十分籠統,並未如今日一般確切細分以科學為基礎的醫學、以神祇為主的宗教以及以超自然反應為目標的魔法,而是只要與人的康適與否相關,便三種混合在一起使用。解夢也是古埃及人用來瞭解如何使身體健康的方法之一。所以醫師祭司法師多半是同一個職業的不同面相,沒有很清楚的分工。

一般非外傷的疾病,通常被認為是邪靈作祟,因此經常尋求祭司協助除靈,昆蟲(尤其是蠍子)咬傷則多半求助於魔法。比起這些非科學性的管道,以科學為基礎的醫學記載相對來說發展得相當精確而紮實,具有完備的病例及診斷紀錄,連獸醫所留下的紀錄都有。但以現代醫學的角度來看,古埃及病例記載的精確僅限於外傷部分,常被認定與靈怪有關的疾病診療方式並未有很確實的發展。

參見

參考文獻

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 Allen, James P. The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt. New York/New Haven: The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-300-10728-9. LCCN 2005016908. 
  2. ^ 詹姆斯·亨利·布雷斯特德. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: published in facsimile and hieroglyphic transliteration with translation and commentary in two volumes. University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications, v. 3–4. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1991 [First published 1930]. ISBN 978-0-918986-73-3. LCCN 31007705. 
  • James Henry Breasted, The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. 2v. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. (University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications, 3) This includes a facsimile, transcription, translation, and commentary.
  • James Henry Breasted, "The Edwin Smith Papyrus". New-York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin 6.1 (April 1922): 5–31.
  • Wolfgang Kosack "Der medizinische Papyrus Edwin Smith." The New York Academy of Medicine Inv. 217; Neu in Hieroglyphen übertragen, übersetzt und bearbeitet: Berlin 2011; Christoph Brunner, Basel 2012, ISBN 978-3-033-03331-3.
  • Ira M. Rutkow, The History of Surgery in the United States, 1775-1900, Norman Publishing 1988
  • Robert H. Wilkins, Neurosurgical Classics, Thieme 1992
  • Leonard Francis Peltier, Fractures: A History and Iconography of Their Treatment, Norman Publishing 1990
  • Ann Rosalie David, The Experience of Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2000
  • Nadey S. Hakim, Vassilios E. Papalois eds., Surgical Complications: Diagnosis & Treatment, Imperial College Press 2007

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