白矮星被認為是恆星演化的最終狀態之一,是初始質量大約在10M☉以下(這包括銀河系中超過97%的恆星),質量不夠多,因而不足以演化成為中子星[5]:§1。在主序帶末端的中、低質量的恆星結束氫融合階段後,將膨脹成為紅巨星,在此期間將通過3氦過程將在核心的氦融合成碳和氧。如果一顆紅巨星的質量不足以產生融合碳所需要的核心溫度(約1億K),其將成為惰性的碳和氧積聚的核心。這樣的恆星在脫落其外層,並形成行星狀星雲後,它會留下一個核心,即殘存的白矮星[6]。通常,這種白矮星主要由碳和氧組成,稱為碳氧白矮星(CO white dwarf)。如果初始質量介於8至10.5M☉(太陽質量)之間,核心的溫度足以融合碳,但仍不足以融合氖,這可能會形成氧氖鎂白矮星(ONeMg或ONe white dwarf )[7]。質量非常低的恆星無法燃燒氦,因此氦白矮星[8][9]可能是在聯星系統中經由質量流失形成的。
在1917年,范·马南發現了一顆孤獨的白矮星,現在被稱為范马南星[18]。這三顆白矮星,最早發現的,是所謂的經典的白矮星[3], p. 2。終於,有許多的黯淡的白色恆星被發現,它們都有高自行,表示都是緊鄰地球的低光度天體,因此都是白矮星。
威廉·魯伊登在1922年要說明這種天體時,似乎是第一個使用白矮星這個名詞的人[4][19][20][21][22],稍後這個名詞經亚瑟·爱丁顿而通俗化了[23][4]。儘管有各種的懷疑,第一顆非經典的白矮星大約直到1930年代才被辨認出來。在1939年已經發現了18顆白矮星[3], p. 3,在1940年代,魯伊登和其他人繼續研究白矮星,到1950年發現已經超過一百顆的白矮星[24],到了1999年,這個數目已經超過2,000顆[25]之後的史隆數位巡天發現的白矮星就超過9,000顆,而且絕大多數都是新發現的[26]。
白矮星在被發現之後就被確認是密度極端高的天體。如果一顆在聯星系統的恆星,像是天狼星B和波江座40B,是可以從聯星的軌道估計出它的質量的。在1910年對天狼星B這樣做過[31],得到的質量是0.94太陽質量(現代的估計是1太陽質量)[32]。由於高溫恆星的輻射量大於低溫恆星,恆星的表面亮度可以從有效表面溫度,也可以從光譜來估計。如果知道恆星的距離,它的整體光度也能估計出來。從這兩種圖表可以比較出恆星的半徑,由推理排出來的順序讓當時的天文學家非常困惑,因為天狼星B和波江座40B必須有非常高的密度。例如,當恩斯特·奧皮克在1916年估計一些聯星的密度時,他就發現波江座40B的密度超過太陽25,000倍以上,使他認為是"不可能的"[33]。如同亞瑟·史坦利·愛丁頓在1927年之後寫道[23], p. 50:
^ 5.05.15.2Fontaine, G.; Brassard, P.; Bergeron, P. The Potential of White Dwarf Cosmochronology. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 2001, 113 (782): 409–435. Bibcode:2001PASP..113..409F. doi:10.1086/319535.
^ 7.07.1Werner, K.; Hammer, N. J.; Nagel, T.; Rauch, T.; Dreizler, S. On Possible Oxygen/Neon White Dwarfs: H1504+65 and the White Dwarf Donors in Ultracompact X-ray Binaries. 14th European Workshop on White Dwarfs. 2005, 334: 165. Bibcode:2005ASPC..334..165W. arXiv:astro-ph/0410690.
^A Catalog of Spectroscopically Confirmed White Dwarfs from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 4 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Daniel J. Eisenstein, James Liebert, Hugh C. Harris, S. J. Kleinman, Atsuko Nitta, Nicole Silvestri, Scott A. Anderson, J. C. Barentine, Howard J. Brewington, J. Brinkmann, Michael Harvanek, Jurek Krzesiński, Eric H. Neilsen, Jr., Dan Long, Donald P. Schneider, and Stephanie A. Snedden, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series167, #1(November 2006), pp. 40–58.
^The Lowest Mass White Dwarf (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Mukremin Kulic, Carlos Allende Prieto, Warren R. Brown, and D. Koester, The Astrophysical Journal660, #2(May 2007), pp. 1451–1461.
^ 28.028.1White dwarf mass distribution in the SDSS (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), S. O. Kepler, S. J. Kleinman, A. Nitta, D. Koester, B. G. Castanheira, O. Giovannini, A. F. M. Costa, and L. Althaus, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society375, #4(March 2007), pp. 1315–1324.
^Preliminary General Catalogue, L. Boss, Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1910.
^The Age and Progenitor Mass of Sirius B, James Liebert, Patrick A. Young, David Arnett, J. B. Holberg, and Kurtis A. Williams, The Astrophysical Journal630, #1(September 2005), pp. L69–L72.
^Nelemans, G.; Tauris, T. M. Formation of undermassive single white dwarfs and the influence of planets on late stellar evolution. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 1998, 335: L85. Bibcode:1998A&A...335L..85N. arXiv:astro-ph/9806011.
^Nomoto, K. Evolution of 8–10 solar mass stars toward electron capture supernovae. I – Formation of electron-degenerate O + NE + MG cores. The Astrophysical Journal. 1984, 277: 791. Bibcode:1984ApJ...277..791N. doi:10.1086/161749.
^Jordan, George C. IV.; Perets, Hagai B.; Fisher, Robert T.; van Rossum, Daniel R. Failed-detonation Supernovae: Subluminous Low-velocity Ia Supernovae and their Kicked Remnant White Dwarfs with Iron-rich Cores. The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 2012, 761 (2): L23. Bibcode:2012ApJ...761L..23J. S2CID 119203015. arXiv:1208.5069. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/761/2/L23.
White Dwarf Stars, Steven D. Kawaler, in Stellar remnants, S. D. Kawaler, I. Novikov, and G. Srinivasan, edited by Georges Meynet and Daniel Schaerer, Berlin: Springer, 1997. Lecture notes for Saas-Fee advanced course number 25. ISBN 3-540-61520-2.
物理
Black holes, white dwarfs, and neutron stars: the physics of compact objects, Stuart L. Shapiro and Saul A. Teukolsky, New York: Wiley, 1983. ISBN 0-471-87317-9.
Asteroseismology of white dwarf stars, D. E. Winget, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter10, #49(1998-12-14), pp. 11247–11261. DOI 10.1088/0953-8984/10/49/014.
Discovery of New Ultracool White Dwarfs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Evalyn Gates, Geza Gyuk, Hugh C. Harris, Mark Subbarao, Scott Anderson, S. J. Kleinman, James Liebert, Howard Brewington, J. Brinkmann, Michael Harvanek, Jurek Krzesinski, Don Q. Lamb, Dan Long, Eric H. Neilsen, Jr., Peter R. Newman, Atsuko Nitta, and Stephanie A. Snedden, The Astrophysical Journal612, #2(September 2004), pp. L129–L132.
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