头足纲

頭足綱
化石时期:500–0 Ma
寒武纪-现今
自然界的藝術形態》(1904年),圖版 54: Gamochonia
科学分类 编辑
界: 动物界 Animalia
门: 軟體動物門 Mollusca
纲: 頭足綱 Cephalopoda
Cuvier, 1797
亞綱

头足纲学名Cephalopoda)是软体动物的一个化石记录在一万种以上,现生仅存786种。頭足綱分布在所有海域的所有深度,目前沒有發現適應淡水的種類,但有些物种能夠適應不同鹽度的水。

頭足綱可分為兩個到四個亞綱,其中現存兩個亞綱:一個是蛸亞綱(Coleoidea,又稱為二鰓亞綱),外殼已經消失或是內化,主要依赖静水骨骼支持身体,物种包括章魚鱿鱼等;另一個是鹦鹉螺亚纲(Nautiloidea,又称為四鳃亚纲),是頭足類中最古老的一支,其外殼依然存在,包括鸚鵡螺和已滅絕直角石房角石等。另有已滅絕的菊石亚纲(Ammonoidea,也可歸於四鳃亚纲之下)和箭石亞綱(Belemnoidea,也可歸於蛸亚纲之下)。

特征

头足纲动物全部為海生,肉食性,身体两侧对称,分头、足、躯干三部分。头部发达,两侧有一对发达的眼。足着生于头部,特化为腕和漏斗,故称头足类。漏斗位于头部腹面,在头和躯干之间。原始种类具有外壳,现存种类则多是内壳或无壳。鳃为羽状,一对或二对,心耳和肾的数目和一致。口腔具有角质齿舌。神经系统集中,感官发达。循环系统为闭管式。直接发育(无需变态)。

神經系統與行為

头足类的神经系统发达,由中枢神经系统、周围神经系统和交感神经系统组成,结构复杂。

頭足綱被認為是最聰明的無脊椎動物,因為牠們有高度發展的知覺和較大的。牠們的腹足綱雙殼綱都來的大。除了鸚鵡螺之外,頭足綱的表皮擁有一種特殊的色素細胞(chromatophore),使他們能夠經由變色來進行溝通偽裝。有研究顯示一隻章魚的智力有如五歲的孩童,能夠進行開罐、玩積木等較複雜的動作。[1]

此外頭足綱的神經系統無脊椎動物之中最為複雜的,在外套膜(mantle)中龐大的神經纖維成為神經生理學常用的實驗材料。

頭足綱的視覺敏銳,實驗證明普通的章魚能夠辨識亮度、形狀、大小還有物體的垂直和水平方向。頭足綱的眼睛更能夠感應光線的偏振平面。令人驚訝的是,這些能夠變色的頭足綱動物大都是色盲[2]。當他們進行偽裝的時候,能夠依照他們所看見的背景,利用色素細胞改變皮膚的亮度和花紋。而改變顏色的時候使用的是彩虹色素細胞(iridophore)和白色素細胞(leucophores),這些細胞能夠反映環境的光線[3]。目前為止,只有一個種類的彩色視覺(color vision)得到證明,稱為螢火魷(Sparkling Enope Squid)[2]

循環系統

頭足綱是軟體動物當中唯一擁有封閉式循環系統馝分類:牠們擁有兩個經由中的微血管來輸送血液的鰓心;一個經由身體的其他部分輸送充氧血的單一系統心臟(single systemic heart)[4]

和其他的軟體動物一樣,頭足綱利用一種含銅離子的血青蛋白(hemocyanin)來運送氧氣,而不是像鳥類或一般哺乳動物使用血紅素。牠們的血液缺氧時呈無色透明;接觸空氣之後時呈藍綠色[5]

運動方式

頭足綱的一般行動方式是利用噴射動力,充滿氧氣的水被吸入外套膜中的之後,肌肉收縮使空間減少,導致水從足演变而成的漏斗管(hyponome)噴出,通常是背對著水噴出,並且能夠用漏斗控制方向。這是一種相對用尾巴推進更為耗能的移動方式,相對效率隨著體型增大而降低,這也使一些種類盡可能使用來推進。

有一些種類的章魚能夠在海底行走,墨魚和烏賊可以擺動外套膜上的翼狀肌肉來移動。

繁殖與生命週期

除了少數例外,蛸亞綱的壽命很短且成長快速,大多數吃下的養分都被牠們用來長大。大多數種類的雄性陰莖是一個用來將精囊輸送到交接腕(hectocotylus)的生殖管(gonoduct)肌肉末端。而交接腕是用來將精囊輸送給雌性。有一些種類沒有交接腕,牠們直接將較長的陰莖伸出外套膜來與雌性直接交配。此外他們行"單次繁殖",也就是一生只生產一次。下完一整組的蛋之後便死亡。菊石亞綱亦採行這種速生速死、單次且大量繁殖的策略。

鸚鵡螺亞綱則行“多次繁殖”,牠們壽命較長,且一次只下少量的蛋。

演化

最早的頭足類(短棒角石,屬於鸚鵡螺亞綱)于寒武紀晚期出現。早古生代时期鸚鵡螺類非常繁盛,一些體型巨大的種類更位於食物链的頂端。泥盆紀時鸚鵡螺類中的桿石目分別演化成了菊石亞綱蛸亞綱。到了中生代,菊石取代了鸚鵡螺類的地位,成為海洋中最主要的中低端掠食者。然而所有菊石都在中生代末的白堊紀﹣古近紀滅絕事件中全數滅絕,沒有留下任何後代。在現代海洋中最為興盛的頭足綱類群是不具外殼的蛸亞綱。

頭足綱的起源尚无定论,目前有两种解释:

早期的頭足類有外殼保護,這些外殼原本是圓錐狀,但是後來演變成了像現今的鸚鵡螺那樣的螺旋形狀。到了現代,許多的頭足類依然保有內殼,而大多數擁有外殼的種類在白堊紀末就都滅絕了。不論是菊石亚纲蛸亚纲,都是由擁有外殼的桿石目在4億年前的泥盆纪分化出來。

触手(腕)的起源

关于头足纲触手(腕)的起源尚无定论,目前有两种解释[6]

  • 足源说,腕由腹足分裂而成。
  • 头源说,腕由头——准确地说是口周围的结构分裂强化而成。

分類

以下為頭足綱的下屬分類單元:(已滅絕的分類單元以劍號(†)標記)

管鱿目的一种
大西洋耳烏賊

注釋

  1. ^ 章魚:地球上的異形大腦. BBC 英伦网. 2016-03-29 [2021-10-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-11-30) (中文(繁體)). 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Messenger, John B.; Roger T. Hanlon. Cephalopod Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998: 17–21. ISBN 978-0-521-64583-6. 
  3. ^ Messenger, John B.; Roger T. Hanlon. Cephalopod Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998: 68. ISBN 978-0-521-64583-6. 
  4. ^ Wells, M.J. Nervous control of the heartbeat in octopus. Journal of Experimental Biology. 1980, 85 (1): 112 [2006-12-02]. (原始内容存档于2007-03-04). 
  5. ^ Ghiretti-Magaldi, A.; Ghiretti, F. The Pre-history of Hemocyanin. The Discovery of Copper in the Blood of Molluscs. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences (Birkhäuser Basel). October 1992, 48 (10).  [永久失效連結]
  6. ^ Shuichi Shigeno, Sasaki Takenori, Sigurd von Boletzky, The origins of cephalopod body plans: A geometrical and developmental basis for the evolution of vertebrate-like organ systems. Cephalopods - Present and Past, Tokai University Press, Tokyo, p. 23-34, 2010

參考文獻

  • Bather, F.A. 1888a. Shell-growth in Cephalopoda (Siphonopoda). Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 6, Vol. 1: 298-310
  • Bather, F.A. 1888b. Professor Blake and Shell-Growth in Cephalopoda. Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Series 6, Vol. 1: 421-426.
  • Berthold, Thomas, & Engeser, Theo. 1987. Phylogenetic analysis and systematization of the Cephalopoda (Mollusca). Verhandlungen Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Hamburg. (NF) 29: 187-220.
  • Engeser, Theo. 1997. Fossil Nautiloidea Page. <https://web.archive.org/web/20060925110442/http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~palaeont/fossilnautiloidea/fossnautcontent.htm>
  • Felley, J., Vecchione, M., Roper, C. F. E., Sweeney, M. & Christensen, T., 2001-2003: Current Classification of Recent Cephalopoda. internet: National Museum of Natural History: Department of Systematic Biology: Invertebrate Zoology: http://www.mnh.si.edu/cephs/(页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆
  • Shevyrev, A.A. 2005. The Cephalopod Macrosystem: A Historical Review, the Present State of Knowledge, and Unsolved Problems: 1. Major Features and Overall Classification of Cephalopod Mollusks. Paleontological Journal. 39(6):606-614. Translated from Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal No. 6, 2005, 33-42.

外部連結

英文

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