The Ustaše (also called Ustashas or Ustashi) was a Croatian independence movement. It was engaged in terrorist activities before World War II.^[1] Loosely associated with Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, the Ustaše ruled an independent Croatian state, after Yugoslavia was occupied by Italy and Germany.^[2] At the end of World War II, much of the Ustaše was disbanded as result of the partisans. However factions still existed, new groups were also formed such as the Crusaders (Križari).^[source?]

Croatian politician Stjepan Radić was shot in October 1928 and died a month later. Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia, imposed a royal dictatorship in January 1929 and made all political parties illegal. Ante Pavelić left the country for Vienna. He and Gustav Perčec, a former Austro-Hungarian Lieutenant colonel, established contact with an organization of Macedonian political émigré. These two groups agreed to coordinate their political activities for achieving full independence for Macedonia and Croatia.^[2]

Pavelić secretly met with the leader of outlawed Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, Ivan Mikhailov, a declared enemy of Yugoslavia, and agreed with him to cooperate against the Yugoslav state. The Court for the Preservation of the State in Belgrade sentenced Pavelić and Perčec to death on 17 July 1929.^[3] The exiles started organizing support for their cause among the Croatian emigration in Europe, North America, and South America. The Ustaše organization was small in numbers and was organized in military patterns. They fought Yugoslav statehood by means of terror.^[4][2]

The roots of the Ustaše ideology were in the Croatian nationalism of the nineteenth century. The Ustaše ideological system was chiefly based on the traditional pure Croatian nationalism of Ante Starčević. About it, W. Safran wrote^[5]

But another vision of Croatian identity that was closely tied to the Catholic Church and the Vatican and was led by an ex-seminarist Ante Starcevic became the ideological precursor to the Ustase. Starcevic and his followers emphasized the high achievements of Western Catholic, Croatian culture, while Serbian culture was depicted as oriental and inferior.

Starčević's racism was elaborated by Ustaša Ivo Pilar [under the pseudonym L. von Südland].^[6][2] His book was translated into Croatian in 1943, by Pavelić's regime, as one of the tenets of his Ustaše and his Independent State of Croatia.^[7][8] The Ustaše said that Eastern Orthodoxy, as a symbol of Serbian nationalism to them, was their greatest enemy. The Ustaše never recognized the existence of a Serb people on the territories of Croatia or Bosnia. They recognized only "Croats of the Eastern faith." They also called Bosnian Muslims "Croats of the Islamic faith,"(the latter which they wanted to force to convert to Christianity) but they had a stronger ethnic dislike of Serbs.

Simultaneously, the Ustaše borrowed from traditional Croatian nationalism, the Nazism of Hitler, the fascism of Mussolini, and even from the program of the Croatian Peasant Party.^[9] The Ustaše aimed at an ethnically "pure" Croatia. They saw the Serbs that lived in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina as their biggest obstacle. Ustaše ministers Mile Budak, Mirko Puk and Milovan Žanić declared in May 1941 that the goal of the new Ustaše policy was an ethnically clean Croatia. They announced the strategy on July 22, 1941 ^[10] to achieve their goal, which resembled the bloodiest religious wars:^[11]

A third must become Catholic, a third must leave the country, and a third must die!

The Ustaše persecuted the Serbs, who were Orthodox Christians. They were tolerant toward the Muslims Bosniaks, claiming that the Muslims were actually ethnic Croats that converted to Islam during the Ottoman Turk occupation of Bosnia. The state even converted a former museum in Zagreb for use as a mosque. The basic principles of the movement were laid out by Pavelić in his 1929 pamphlet "Principles of the Ustaše Movement."^[12] The Ustaše's problem with the Nazi ideology was that the Croats are Slavs and were considered inferior by the Nazis. Ustaše ideology thus created a theory about a pseudo-Gothic origin of the Croats in order to raise their standing on the Aryan ladder.^[13]

At Janka Puszta training facility in Hungary, IMRO^{[clarification needed]} terrorists trained Ustaše operatives in bomb-making and in conspiracy. The Ustaše carried out about half-dozen assassinations of Yugoslavian officials or pro-Serb civilians. They bombed a dozen trains, including the Orient Express, and other public targets during the first four years of their existence.^[14] The Yugoslav Government complained to the League of Nations and forced Hungary to close down Janka Pusta Ustaše training camp. Internal power struggle, and discovery that Perčec's mistress was a Yugoslav police informant, led to Perčec's assassination by Pavelić in 1933.^[15]

The Ustaše received the most money from Mussolini. He also supplied the group with an Italian headquarters that changed whenever Yugoslavia managed to track it down. Camps for training terrorists and saboteurs were set up in Italy, chiefly at Brescia and Borgotaro. An armed insurrection was attempted in 1933. The Ustaše,^[16][17] armed by the Italians, attempted to invade Yugoslavia by crossing the Adriatic Sea in motorboats. This was unsuccessful. The lack of success may have led to the decision to assassinate King Alexander I of Yugoslavia.

Two assassination attempts of Yugoslav royal family members were made. Alexander was murdered at Marseilles on 9 October 1934, along with the French Foreign Minister, Louis Barthou. After the assassination, Mussolini renounced the Ustaše, and the group went deeply underground. The lack of armed protection for the Yugoslav king, and the general laxity of security precautions when it was well known that one attempt had already been made on Alexander's life, are grim tributes to Pavelić organizational abilities.

He had apparently been able to bribe a high official in the Surete General. The Prefect of Police of Marseilles, Jouhannaud, was subsequently removed from office.^[18] The assassin was Vlada Georgief Cernozemski, a Bulgarian, who had already killed two members of the Bulgarian Parliament in Sofia. His accomplices were arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment. Pavelic was condemned to death by France, but escaped.^[19]

Yugoslavia brought charges against Hungary and Italy before the League of Nations in November 1934. They had evidence that Italy and Hungary had openly conspired against her sovereignty. The League of Nations did not discuss the Italian conspiracy against the national sovereignty of Yugoslavia. Italy refused to extradite Pavelić and Kvaternik to either France or Yugoslavia, and Hungary bore the brunt of the charges.^[20]

After the assassination, the Ustaše activities were prevented completely. A great number of Ustaše were caught and arrested in Italy, Germany, and Hungary. Italy interned many Ustaše to the Lipari camp, where many died. Janka Puszta Ustaše camp was raided by Hungarian police, who arrested some of them. Ustaše from Germany escaped to Switzerland, France, and England.^[21]

Widespread outrage at the assassination of Alexander and Barthou led to the first international efforts to combat terrorism since the St. Petersburg Protocol of 1904. The issue was taken up by the League of Nations, which passed the convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism in 1937. After March 1937, when Italy and Yugoslavia signed a friendship treaty, many Ustaše in Italy were extradited to Yugoslavia.

Germany and Italy invaded Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941. On April 10, the most senior home-based Ustaša, Slavko Kvaternik, took control of the police in Zagreb.

In a radio broadcast that day he proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia (Serbo-Croatian: Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH). Maček issued a statement that day, calling on all Croatians to cooperate with the new authorities.^[22][2] Meanwhile, Pavelić and several hundred Ustaše left their camps in Italy for Zagreb, where Pavelić set up his government on 17 April. He gave himself the title of Poglavnik – equivalent to Führer in German.

The NDH included the territory of Croatia, Srem,^{[clarification needed]} and Bosnia-Herzegovina – except parts of the Dalmatian coastal area, which were ceded to the Italians. De facto control over this territory varied for the majority of the war, as the partisans grew more successful, while the Germans and Italians increasingly exercised direct control over areas of their interest.

All who opposed or threatened the Ustaše were banned. In early 1941, Jews and Serbs were ordered to leave certain areas of Zagreb.^[23]

Pavelić first met with Adolf Hitler on 6 June 1941. Mile Budak, then a minister in Pavelić's government, publicly proclaimed the violent racial policy of the state on 22 July 1941.^[24]

Maks Luburić, one of the chiefs of the secret police, started building concentration camps in the summer of the same year. Ustaše activities in villages across the Dinaric Alps led to the Italians and the Germans expressing disquiet. As early as July 10, 1941, Wehrmacht General Edmund Glaise von Horstenau reported to the German High Command, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW):^[25]

“

Our troops have to be mute witnesses of such events; it does not reflect well on their otherwise high reputation... I am frequently told that German occupation troops would finally have to intervene against Ustaše crimes. This may happen eventually. Right now, with the available forces, I could not ask for such action. Ad hoc intervention in individual cases could make the German Army look responsible for countless crimes which it could not prevent in the past.

”

A Gestapo report to Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler, dated February 17, 1942, stated that:^[25]

“

Increased activity of the bands [of rebels] is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by Ustaše units in Croatia against the Orthodox population. The Ustaše committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age, but especially against helpless old people, women and children. The number of the Orthodox that the Croats have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand.

”

Italian troops in the field had competing territorial claims with their Ustaše allies and had cooperated from the start with Chetnik units operating in the southern areas that they controlled. Hitler tried to insist that Mussolini should have his forces work with the Ustaše, but senior Italian commanders, such as General Mario Roatta, ignored such orders.

The Ustaše had race laws like those of Nazi Germany. These laws were aimed against Jews, Roma, and Serbs, who were declared enemies of the Croatian people. Serbs, Jews, Roma and anti-fascist Croats and Bosniaks, including communists, were interned in concentration camps, the largest of which was the Jasenovac concentration camp, where many were killed by Ustaše militia.

The exact number of victims is not known. The number of murdered Jews is fairly reliable: around 32,000 Jews were killed during World War II on their territory. Gypsies (Yugoslav Roma) numbered around 40,000 fewer after the war. Of the number of Serbs who died, estimates vary between 300,000 and 700,000.^[2]

During World War II, various German military commanders gave different figures for the number of Serbs, Jews and others killed on the territory of the Independent State of Croatia. They circulated figures of 400,000 Serbs (Alexander Lehr); 350,000 Serbs (Lothar Rendulic); between 300,000 (Edmund Glaise von Horstenau); more than "3/4 of a million Serbs" (Hermann Neubacher) in 1943; 600,000–700,000 until March 1944 (Ernst Fick); 700,000 (Massenbach).

The history textbooks in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cited 700,000 as the total number of victims at Jasenovac. According to the Simon Wiesenthal Center (citing the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust), "Ustasa terrorists killed 500,000 Serbs, expelled 250,000 and forced 250,000 to convert to Catholicism. They murdered thousands of Jews and Gypsies."^[26]

The Jasenovac Memorial Area, currently headed by Slavko Goldstein, keeps a list of 59,188 names of Jasenovac victims that was gathered by government officials in Belgrade in 1964. The previous head of the Memorial Area, Simo Brdar, estimated at least 365,000 dead at Jasenovac. The Muslim Bosniaks community from Zenica published a declaration stressing the special position of Muslim Roma, and with help of Muslim religious authorities in Sarajevo, the declaration influenced the Ustaše authorities to make a special provision in May 1942 to spare Muslim Roma residing in Bosnia and Herzegovina from deportation to the concentration camps.^[27]

The Belgrade Museum of the Holocaust compiled a list of over 77,000 names of Jasenovac victims. It was previously headed by Milan Bulajić, who supported the claim of a total of 700,000 victims. The current administration of the Museum has further expanded the list to include a bit over 80,000 names.

In the 1961 trial of Adolf Eichmann, Alexander Arnon – secretary of the Jewish Community in Zagreb – testified about the treatment of Jews in Yugoslavia during the war. Alexander Arnon's testimony included estimates of 600,000 killed in the Jasenovac concentration camp.^[28]

The first batch of concentration camps was formed in spring 1941:

• Pag
• Đakovo
• Tenja, near Osijek
• Loborgrad, in Zagorje
• Jadovno, near Gospić
• Danica, near Koprivnica
• Kruščica, near Vitez and Travnik in Bosnia

These six camps were closed by October 1942. The Jasenovac complex was built between August 1941 and February 1942. The first two camps, Krapje and Bročica, were closed in November 1941. The three newer camps continued to function until the end of the war:

• Ciglana (Jasenovac III)
• Kozara (Jasenovac IV)
• Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V)

There were also camps in:

• Gospić
• Kerestinec, near Zagreb
• Lepoglava, near Varaždin
• Jastrebarsko, between Zagreb and Karlovac - Jastrebarsko Children's Concentration Camp^[29]

Numbers of prisoners:

• From 300,000 to 350,000 up to 700,000 in Jasenovac
• Around 35,000 in Gospić
• Around 8,500 in Pag
• Around 3,000 in Đakovo
• 1,018 in Jastrebarsko
• Around 1,000 in Lepoglava

Throughout the Catholic Ustaše-led NDH's existence, the Roman Catholic Church played a significant role in Ustaše's genocides.^[30] Alojzije Cardinal Stepinac, then the Archbishop of Zagreb, was seen by the survivors as an Ustaše war criminal.^[30] Stepinac was crucial in the Church's decision to sponsor the Ustaše due to his perception that the Ustaše was the^[30]

• guarantor of Croatia as the "Bulwark of Catholicism" against Islam and Orthodox Christianity
• hope for a Catholic state to reconvert the 200,000 Serbian Orthodox Christians who changed from their Catholic faith following WWI

In May 1941, Pope Pius XII met the NDH leader Ante Pavelić – a devout Catholic himself – with Stepinac. It was followed by Pope Pius XII's posting of Giuseppe Ramiro Marcone (1882–1952) as his rep to the NDH,^[30] despite Pope Pius XII's clear knowledge of the ongoing genocides of Croatian Jews, Roma and Serbs.^[30] Aligned with the Pope's will, Stepinac only disagreed with brutalizing Catholic Jews, but not the vast majority of non-Catholic Jews.^[30]

Pogroms against Croatian Jews, Roma and Serbs were often incited by Catholic priests who hated the presence of non-Catholics in their parishes.^[30] To avoid immediate death, many Serbs were forced to convert to Catholicism, while Jews who converted were still killed as the Ustaše regime followed the Nazi racial policies on seeking to wipe out Jews as a race rather than a religion.^[30][31]

Under subordinate bishops' pressure, Stepinac told the Pope that they would ask Pavelić to stop the massacres and forced conversions, while sending Pavelić a different letter in which they asked for neither to stop.^[30] Instead, they asked Pavelić to delegate them the conversion authority to make the persecutions look more "humane".^[30]

In April 1942, Stepinac visited the Vatican for the second time, when he presented a report to Vatican's State Secretary Luigi Cardinal Maglione that praised the Ustaše regime's crackdown on abortion and pornography,^[30] while denying that Ustaše's genocides were planned.^[30] The Vatican kept full diplomatic relations with the NDH until its defeat in 1945.^[30]

To stay friendly with the Jews, Stepinac arranged for Chief Rabbi Freiburg of Zagreb to write the Pope a letter to thank him for the help, which the Church had not actually offered.^[30] Chief Rabbi Freiburg of Zagreb was killed in the Auschwitz concentration camp on 8 May 1943 upon arrival for protesting the Nazi brutalization of his fellow Jews.^[32]

Contrary to the common perception that the Roman Catholic Church was opposed to Nazism and the Holocaust, priests and bishops throughout the Church hierarchy were highly sympathetic to them due to classical antisemitism and their belief that Nazi Germany was the "lesser evil".^[30][31]

Within the lower clergy, many Jesuits and Franciscans were Ustaše members, who persecuted or massacred Jews, Roma and Serbs for the Ustaše regime.^[30] Some prominent Catholic perpetrators included Ivan Guberina, Mate Mugoš and Franciscan Father Bojanović,^[30] while Franciscan Dionizije Juričev and Radoslav Glavaš served as the head of the Religious Section (VO) and head of the Religious Department of the Ministry of Justice and Religion respectively to oversee forced conversions within NDH territory.^[30]

Miroslav Filipović-Majstorović, the operator of the Jasenovac concentration camp in which 77,000–99,000 were killed,^[33] was a Franciscan. In addition, Catholic priest Božidar Bralo served as the security police chief in Sarajevo to target Jews while Dyonisy Juričev as an Ustaše newspaper editor calling for all bishops to join the Ustaše to kill Jews.^[30] 81% of Croatian Jews were killed in the Holocaust.^[31][33]

The Ustaše regime had sent large amounts of gold that it had plundered from Serbian and Jewish property owners during WWII into Swiss banks. Of a total of 350 million Swiss Francs, about 150 million was seized by British troops; however, the remaining 200 million (ca. 47 million dollars) reached the Vatican.

Speculations exist that it is still being kept in the Vatican Bank. This was reported by the American intelligence agency SSU in October 1946. This issue is the theme of a class action lawsuit against the Vatican Bank and others.^[source?]

Adolf Eichmann trial witness Alexander Arnon testified about the Roman Catholic Church stance that time.^[34]

Unfortunately there were no protests. Croatia was definitely a Catholic state. Not even the Catholic Church in Zagreb said one word against the deportations and sufferings of the Jews.

E. Fratini and D. Cluster wrote in their book The entity: Five centuries of secret Vatican espionage:^[35]

The Archbishop of Zagreb, Monisgor Alojzije Stepinac, provided Catholic support to the Pro Nazi government of Ante Pavelic; knew right from the start about the massacres and extermination of Serbs, Jews, and Gypsies; and was one of the pillars of the effort to help Nazi and Croatian criminals to escape to South America after the Second World War.

Archbishop Stepinac also said this on 28 March 1941, in note of Yugoslavia's early attempts to unite Croatians and Serbs:

All in all, Croats and Serbs are of two worlds, northpole and southpole, never will they be able to get together unless by a miracle of God. The [historical] schism (with the Eastern Orthodoxy) is the greatest curse in Europe, almost greater than Protestantism. Here there is no moral, no principles, no truth, no justice, no honesty.

In his 1999 book Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII,^[36] British author and journalist John Cornwell pointed out that^[37]

1. Pope Pius XII's allegedly anti-Nazi sermons never mentioned Jews
2. Pope Pius XII was silent after the Nazi roundup of 1,200 Jews below the Vatican hill on 16 October 1943^[38]
3. the reason for (1.) and (2.) was Pope Pius XII's lifelong antisemitism preventing him from developing sympathy for Jews
4. Defenders of Pope Pius XII promoted lies to make him look like a hero by misclassifying his neutral correspondence with the Nazis as "protests" and overstating his interventions in Nazi deportations of Jews^[39][40]

At the end of war, Ustaše continued fighting for a short while after the formal surrender of German Army Group E on 9 May 1945, and many refugees attempted to escape to Austria.

Pavelić, however, with the help of associates among the Franciscans, managed to escape and hide in Austria and Rome, later fleeing to Argentina. The remaining Ustaše went underground or fled to South America and countries such as Canada, Australia, Germany, with the assistance of Roman Catholic churches and their grassroots supporters^[41][42] Some of them persisted in their crusade against Yugoslavia.^[source?]

After the Second World War was over, the Ustaše who had managed to escape from Yugoslav territory, including Pavelić, were smuggled to South America. It is widely documented that this was done through rat lines operated by members of the organization who were Catholic priests and had previously secured positions at the Vatican. Members of the Illyrian College of San Girolamo in Rome were reputedly involved in this: friars Krunoslav Draganović, Petranović, and Dominik Mandić.^[source?]

With the defeat of the Independent State of Croatia, the movement ceased to exist. Infighting over the failure to establish a Croatian state also fragmented the surviving Ustaše. Ante Pavelić formed the Croatian Liberation Movement, which drew several of the former state's leaders. Vjekoslav Vrančić founded a reformed Croatian Liberation Movement, and was its leader.^[source?]

Vjekoslav Luburić helped form an organization called the Odpor (Croatian National Resistance). This became the most violent of the Ustaše organizations which were born after the WWII. Luburić commanded the organization for twenty-five years from his refuge in Spain. His organization was heavily involved in racketeering, extortion, hijacking, terrorist bombings, and other violent crimes. Odpor hada radical nationalist ideology very like Ustaše ideology.^[43]

Another Ustaše terrorist organization, the Croatian Revolutionary Cell, Bruno Busic Department, bombed the R. S. Schullz publishing house in Percha on Lake Starnberg, Germany, on August 19, 1981. The group, which claimed to be based in Paris, used 1 kg of Swiss Mark 2 dynamite. They threatened to use two more kilograms the following week if the firm published Tito's memoirs.^[44]

• Iron Guard
• Antisemitism
• Catholic Church and the Independent State of Croatia
• Roman Catholics and antisemitism in the 21st century

• Aarons, Mark and Loftus, John: Unholy Trinity: How the Vatican's Nazi Networks Betrayed Western Intelligence to the Soviets. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. 372 pages. ISBN 0-312-07111-6
• Edmond Paris: Genocide in Satellite Croatia 1941- 1945. (First print: 1961, Second: 1962), The American Institute for Balkan Affairs, 1990.
• Hermann Neubacher: Sonderauftrag Suedost 1940-1945, Bericht eines fliegendes Diplomaten, 2. durchgesehene Auflage, Goettingen 1956
• Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat: Der Kroatische Ustascha-Staat, 1941-1945 Stuttgart, 1964
• Srdja Trifkovic: Ustaša: Croatian Separatism and European Politics 1929-1945 Lord Byron Foundation for Balkan Studies, London 1998.
• Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Israel Gutman editor-in-chief, Vol. 4, Ustase entry. Macmillan 1990

• Holocaust era in Croatia: Jasenovac 1941-1945 Archived 2003-08-02 at the Wayback Machine, an on-line museum by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
• Principles of the Ustaše movement Archived 2009-07-24 at the Wayback Machine
• Jasenovac Research Institute - "a non-profit human rights organization and research institute committed to establishing the truth about the Holocaust in Yugoslavia."
• Fund For Genocide Research, Jasenovac death camp Archived 2005-10-31 at the Wayback Machine
• Eichmann Trial, Tel Aviv 1961 Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
• Tied up in the Rat Lines from the Haaretz, 17/01/2006
• Lawsuit against the Vatican Bank and Franciscans for return of the Ustasha Treasury by Holocaust victims
• The Ustasha Genocide Archived 2011-12-15 at the Wayback Machine by Marko Attila Hoare