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The belief in witchcraft in the Middle East has a long history. Belief in witchcraft as malevolent magic is attested from ancient Mesopotamia. In ancient Judaism, there existed a complex relationship with magic and witchcraft, with some forms of divination accepted by some rabbis, yet most viewed as forbidden or heretical. In the medieval Middle East, under Islamic and Christian influences, witchcraft's perception fluctuated between healing and heresy, revered by some and condemned by others.^{[citation needed]} Today diverse witchcraft communities have emerged.^{[citation needed]}

History

Ancient Mesopotamia

Magic was an important part of ancient Mesopotamian religion and society, which distinguished between 'good' (helpful) and 'bad' (harmful) rites.^[1] In ancient Mesopotamia, the main way of thwarting alleged witchcraft (kišpū^[2]) was by counter-magic, but the law codes also prescribed the death penalty for those found guilty of witchcraft.^[1] A witch (m. kaššāpu, f. kaššāptu^[2]) was "usually regarded as an anti-social and illegitimate practitioner of destructive magic ... whose activities were motivated by malice and evil intent and who was opposed by the ašipu, an exorcist or incantation-priest".^[3] These ašipu were predominantly male representatives of the state religion, whose main role was to work magic against harmful supernatural forces such as demons.^[3] The stereotypical witch mentioned in the sources tended to be those of low status who were weak or otherwise marginalized, including women, foreigners, actors, and peddlers.^[1]

The Law Code of Hammurabi (18th century BCE) allowed someone accused of witchcraft (harmful magic) to undergo trial by ordeal, by jumping into a holy river. If they drowned, they were deemed guilty and the accuser inherited the guilty person's estate. If they survived, the accuser's estate was handed over instead.^[1]

The Maqlû ("burning") is an ancient Akkadian text, written early in the first millennium BCE, which sets out a Mesopotamian anti-witchcraft ritual.^[4] This lengthy ritual includes invoking various gods, burning an effigy of the witch, then dousing and disposing of the remains.^[5]

According to Tzvi Abusch, ancient Mesopotamian ideas about witches and witchcraft shifted over time, and the early stages were "comparable to the archaic shamanistic stage of European witchcraft".^[3] Abusch writes that in the earliest times, witches were not necessarily considered evil, but took 'white' and 'black' forms, could help others using magic and medical knowledge, generally lived in rural areas and sometimes exhibited ecstatic behavior.^[3]

In Judaism

Jewish law views witchcraft as being idolatry and/or necromancy; both being serious theological and practical offenses in Judaism. Although Maimonides vigorously denied the efficacy of all methods of witchcraft, and claimed that the Biblical prohibitions regarding it were precisely to wean the Israelites from practices related to idolatry.^{[citation needed]} It is acknowledged that while magic exists, it is forbidden to practice it on the basis that it usually involves the worship of other gods.^{[citation needed]} Rabbis of the Talmud also condemned magic when it produced something other than illusion, giving the example of two men who use magic to pick cucumbers.^[6] The one who creates the illusion of picking cucumbers should not be condemned, only the one who actually picks the cucumbers through magic.^{[citation needed]}

However, some of the rabbis practiced "magic" themselves or taught the subject. For instance, Rava (amora) created a golem and sent it to Rav Zeira, and Hanina and Hoshaiah studied every Friday together and created a small calf to eat on Shabbat.^[7] In these cases, the "magic" was seen more as divine miracles (i.e., coming from God rather than "unclean" forces) than as witchcraft. Judaism's most famous reference to a medium is undoubtedly the Witch of Endor whom Saul consults, as recounted in 1 Samuel 28.

Hebrew Bible

According to the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia:

In the Holy Scripture references to sorcery are frequent, and the strong condemnations of such practices found there do not seem to be based so much upon the supposition of fraud as upon the abomination of the magic in itself.^[8]

Verses such as Book of Deuteronomy 18:11-12 and Book of Exodus 22:18 "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live" provided scriptural justification for Christian witch-hunters in the early modern period. The word "witch" is a translation of the Hebrew כָּשַׁף kashaf, "sorcerer". The Hebrew Bible provides some evidence that these commandments were enforced under the Hebrew kings:

And Saul disguised himself, and put on other raiment, and he went, and two men with him, and they came to the woman by night: and he said, I pray thee, divine unto me by the familiar spirit, and bring me him up, whom I shall name unto thee. And the woman said unto him, Behold, thou knowest what Saul hath done, how he hath cut off those that have familiar spirits, and the wizards, out of the land: wherefore then layest thou a snare for my life, to cause me to die?"^[9]

The Hebrew verb הכרית, translated in the King James Version as "cut off", can also be translated as "kill wholesale" or "exterminate".

The King James Version uses the words witch, witchcraft, and witchcrafts to translate the Masoretic כָּשַׁף‎ kāsháf (Hebrew pronunciation: [kɔˈʃaf]) and קֶסֶם‎ (qésem);^[10] these same English terms are used to translate φαρμακεία pharmakeia in the Greek New Testament. Verses such as Deuteronomy 18:11–12^[11] and Exodus 22:18 ("Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live"^[12]) thus provided scriptural justification for Christian witch hunters in the early modern period (see Christian views on magic).

The precise meaning of the Hebrew כָּשַׁף‎, usually translated as witch or sorceress, is uncertain. In the Septuagint, it was translated as pharmakeía or pharmakous. In the 16th century, Reginald Scot, a prominent critic of the witch trials, translated כָּשַׁף‎, φαρμακεία, and the Vulgate's Latin equivalent veneficos as all meaning 'poisoner', and on this basis, claimed that witch was an incorrect translation and poisoners were intended.^[13] His theory still holds some currency, but is not widely accepted, and in Daniel 2:2^[14] כָּשַׁף‎ is listed alongside other magic practitioners who could interpret dreams: magicians, astrologers, and Chaldeans. Suggested derivations of כָּשַׁף‎ include 'mutterer' (from a single root) or herb user (as a compound word formed from the roots kash, meaning 'herb', and hapaleh, meaning 'using'). The Greek φαρμακεία literally means 'herbalist' or one who uses or administers drugs, but it was used virtually synonymously with mageia and goeteia as a term for a sorcerer.^[15]

In the Tanakh, references to witchcraft are frequent, and the strong condemnations of such practices which we read there do not seem to be based so much upon the supposition of fraud as upon the "abomination" of belief in the magic in itself. Judaism does make it clear that Jews shall not try to learn about the ways of witches^[16] and that witches are to be put to death.^[17]

In Early Christianity

The New Testament condemns witchcraft as an abomination, just as the Old Testament had (Epistle to the Galatians 5:20, compared with the Book of Revelation 21:8; 22:15; and Acts of the Apostles 8:9; 13:6).

There is some debate, however, as to whether the word used in Galatians and Revelation, Koinē Greek: φαρμακεία pharmakeía, is properly translated as "sorcery", as the word was commonly used to describe the malicious use of drugs.^{[citation needed]}

In Islam

Divination and magic in Islam encompass a wide range of practices, including black magic, warding off the evil eye, the production of amulets and other magical equipment, evocation, casting lots, and astrology.^[18]

Legitimacy of practising magic is disputed. Most Islamic traditions distinguish between good magic and black magic. Miracles belong to licit magic and are considered gifts of God. Magical incantations for healing purposes generally received support as long as they do not contain polytheism.^[19] al-Razi and Ibn Sina describe that magic is merely a tool and only the outcome determines whether or not the act of magic was legitimate.^[20] Al-Ghazali, although admitting the reality of magic, regards learning all sorts of magic as forbidden.^[20] Ibn al-Nadim argues that good supernatural powers are received from God after purifying the soul, while sorcerers please devils and commit acts of disobedience and sacrifices to demons.^[21] Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, a disciple of Ibn Taimiyya, the major source for Wahhabism, disregards magic, including exorcisms, entirely as superstition.^[22] Ibn Khaldun brands sorcery, talismans, and prestidigitation as forbidden and illegal.^[23] Tabasi did not subscribe to the rationalized framework of magic of most Ash'arite theologians, and offered a wide range of rituals to perform sorcery. Yet he agrees that only magic in accordance with sharia is permissible.^[20]

The reality of magic is confirmed by the Quran. The Quran itself is said to bestow magical blessings upon hearers and heal them, based on al-Isra.^[24] Solomon had the power to speak with animals and jinn, and command devils, which is only given to him with God's permission.^{[Quran 27:19]}^[25] Surah Al-Falaq is used as a prayer to God to ward off black magic and is, according to hadith-literature, revealed to Muhammad to protect him against Jann, the ancestor of the jinn.^[26] The Quran also reports Muhammad being accused of being a magician by his opponents, and denounces these accusations as false.^{[Quran 10:2]}^[27] The idea that devils teach magic is confirmed in Al-Baqara. A pair of fallen angels, Harut and Marut, are also mentioned to tempt people into learning sorcery.^{[Quran 2:102]}

Scholars of religious history have linked several magical practises in Islam with pre-Islamic Turkish and East African customs. Most notable of these customs is the Zār.^[28]^[18]

Today

In the modern Middle East, a complex tapestry of diverse religious and social dynamics unfolds. In the 20th century, the practice of ceremonial trampling and burning the flags of enemy countries emerged, which has been likened to witchcraft as "an attempt to harm the enemy by a kind of sympathetic magic".^[29] In June 2015, Yahoo reported: "The Islamic State group has beheaded two women in Syria on accusations of 'sorcery', the first such executions of female civilians in Syria, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said Tuesday."^[30]

In Israel, Jewish neopaganism involves exploring forms of neopagan witchcraft while drawing on ancient Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah) or combining it with other influences.^[31] There has been a resurgence of interest in Goddess worship,^[32] and this intersects with neopagan witchcraft in certain cases.^[33]

Saudi Arabia has continued to use the death penalty for sorcery and witchcraft.^[34] In 2006 Fawza Falih Muhammad Ali was condemned to death for practicing witchcraft.^[35] There is no legal definition of sorcery in Saudi, but in 2007 an Egyptian pharmacist working there was accused, convicted, and executed. Saudi authorities also pronounced the death penalty on a Lebanese television presenter, Ali Hussain Sibat, while he was performing the hajj (Islamic pilgrimage) in the country.^[36] In 2009, the Saudi authorities set up the Anti-Witchcraft Unit of their Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice police.^[37] In April 2009, a Saudi woman Amina Bint Abdulhalim Nassar was arrested and later sentenced to death for practicing witchcraft and sorcery. In December 2011, she was beheaded.^[38] A Saudi man has been beheaded on charges of sorcery and witchcraft in June 2012.^[39] A beheading for sorcery occurred in 2014.^[40]

In Turkey, a predominantly Muslim country, there has been a mixture of traditional folk practices,^[41]^[42] Sufi mysticism, and New Age spirituality. Some individuals have expressed interest in alternative spiritual practices and forms of neopagan witchcraft, often drawing from local folk traditions, herbalism, and mysticism. However, due to the conservative nature of the country and potential societal pressures, such practices might not be widely visible or openly discussed.^[43]

References

Notes

Citations

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Hutton (2017), p. 49–50.
^ ^a ^b Reiner (1995), p. 97.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Abusch (2002), p. 65–66.
^ Abusch, Tzvi (2015). The Witchcraft Series Maqlû. Writings from the Ancient World. Vol. 37. SBL Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-1628370829.
^ Abusch (2002), p. 15–16.
^ Sanhedrin 67a.
^ Sanhedrin 67b.
^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Witchcraft". Newadvent.org. 1912-10-01. Archived from the original on 2021-02-11. Retrieved 2013-10-31.
^ I Samuel 28.
^ Nahum 3:4; 1 Samuel 15:23; 2 Chronicles 33:6; 2 Kings 9:22; Deuteronomy 18:10; Exodus 22:18
^ Deuteronomy 18:11–12
^ Exodus 22:18
^ Scot, Reginald (c. 1580) The Discoverie of Witchcraft Booke VI Ch. 1.
^ Daniel 2:2
^ Dickie (2003), pp. 33–35.
^ Book of Deuteronomy 18: 9–10
^ Exodus 22:17
^ ^a ^b Savage-Smith (2004), p. ^{[page needed]}.
^ Savage-Smith (2004), p. 87.
^ ^a ^b ^c Zadeh, Travis (2014). Commanding Demons and Jinn: The Sorcerer in Early Islamic Thought. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 154.
^ El-Zein (2009), p. 77.
^ al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim. Zad al-Ma'ad [Provisions of the Hereafter]. pp. 1, 475.
^ Khaldûn (2015), p. 578.
^ Sengers, G. (2003). "Chapter Five: Koran Healing". Women and Demons. Leiden: Brill. p. 124. doi:10.1163/9789004475984_008.
^ Tafsir Ibn Kathir for surah 21, verse 19.
^ von Hammer-Purgstall, Josef (1852). Die Geisterlehre der Moslimen Staatsdruckerei (in German). p. 31.
^ "Magic – Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Archived from the original on 2018-08-06. Retrieved 2018-08-05.
^ Geister, Magier und Muslime. Dämonenwelt und Geisteraustreibung im Islam. Kornelius Hentschel, Diederichs 1997, Germany.
^ Lewis, B. (2011). The End of Modern History in the Middle East. Hoover Institution Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0817912963.
^ "IS beheads two civilian women in Syria: monitor". Yahoo News. 30 June 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-07-04.
^ Román, Rachel (30 October 2021). "Season of the Jewitch: The occultists reviving Jewish witchcraft and folklore". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 2023-08-22.
^ Kestenbaum, Sam (November 6, 2016). "Finding God — Who's a She — at the Kohenet Institute". The Forward. Retrieved 2023-08-22.
^ Idel, M. (2011). Saturn's Jews: On the Witches' Sabbat and Sabbateanism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1441137319.
^ Miethe & Lu (2004), p. 63.
^ "Pleas for condemned Saudi 'witch'". BBC NEWS. 14 February 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-03-14.
^ Usher, Sebastian (2010-04-01). "Death 'looms for Saudi sorcerer'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2020-04-20. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^ "Saudi Arabia's 'Anti-Witchcraft Unit' breaks another spell". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 20 July 2011. Archived from the original on 2015-09-07. Retrieved 2015-09-14.
^ "Saudi Authorities Behead Woman for 'Sorcery' – Middle East – News". Israel National News. 12 December 2011. Archived from the original on 2013-10-18. Retrieved 2013-06-29.
^ "Saudi man executed for 'witchcraft and sorcery'". BBC News. June 19, 2012. Archived from the original on 2018-07-18.
^ di Giovanni, Janine (14 October 2014). "When It Comes to Beheadings, ISIS Has Nothing Over Saudi Arabia". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
^ Pop-Curşeu, I.; Pop-Curșeu, Ș. (2022). Witchcraft in Romania. Springer International. p. 100. ISBN 978-3031152221.
^ "Turkish Magic and Witchcraft". The New York Times. March 3, 1878.
^ Bogdan, Henrik; Djurdjevic, Gordan, eds. (2014). Occultism in a Global Perspective. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1317544470.

Works cited

Abusch, Tzvi (2002). Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Toward a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature. Brill Styx. ISBN 978-90-04-12387-8.
Abusch, Tzvi (2015). The Witchcraft Series Maqlû. Writings from the Ancient World. Vol. 37. SBL Press. ISBN 978-1-62837-082-9.
Dickie, Matthew (2003). Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24982-9.
El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-5070-6.
Khaldûn, Ibn (2015). The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History (Abridged ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16628-5.
Miethe, Terance D.; Lu, Hong (2004). Punishment: A Comparative Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60516-8.
Savage-Smith, Emilie, ed. (2004). Magic and Divination in Early Islam. Ashgate/Variorum. ISBN 978-0-86078-715-0.