Wilderness medicine

Wilderness medicine
Synonyms	expedition medicine, austere medicine, remote medicine
Subdivisions	Expedition medicine Military medicine Diving medicine Aviation medicine
Significant diseases	Altitude sickness dysbarism envenomation heat related illnesses hypothermia major trauma
Significant tests	Point of care; Ultrasound, blood tests
Specialist	Wilderness Medicine Physician/Clinician

Wilderness medicine is a medical specialty concerned with medical care in remote, wilderness and expedition environments. The specialty includes prior planning, public health issues, a number of sub-specialties as well as responding to emergencies. One modern definition of wilderness medicine is "medical care delivered in those areas where fixed or transient geographic challenges reduce the availability of, or alter requirements for, medical or patient movement resources".^[1]^[2]^[3]

This rapidly evolving field is of increasing importance as more people engage in outdoor activities, with more participants coming from the extremes of age, and with more people engaging in high risk activities.^[4]

The exact aegis of wilderness medicine as a specialty is in constant flux to match the requirements of patients underlying wilderness or remote activities. While wilderness medicine is the preferred terminology for this medical speciality in the United States, terminology such as extreme medicine, remote medicine or expedition medicine, are used internationally.

Wilderness medicine overlaps with a number of other medical specialties in terms of knowledge base and scope of practice, these most notable include; Pre-hospital emergency medicine, Military medicine, Humanitarian aid, Disaster medicine and Public health. The future of extreme, expedition, and wilderness medicine will be defined by both recipients and practitioners, and empirical observations will be transformed by evidence-based practice.^[5]

Unlike wilderness first aid which is focussed on the provision of immediate care to the sick and injured in a wilderness setting, wilderness medicine has a far broader approach. These include but are not limited to:

Prolonged Field Care^[6] / Prolonged Casualty Care / Austere Emergency Care^[7]^[8]
Secondary care follow up in remote settings, such as expeditions or in humanitarian settings
The prevention of wilderness medical emergencies, illnesses and injuries
Public health interventions
Providing Critical care medicine in austere environments

Scope

Wilderness medicine is a varied sub-specialty, encompassing skills and knowledge from many other specialties. The specific curricula will vary but an example can be seen in the curriculum^[9]^[10] for Fellowship in the Academy of Wilderness Medicine (FAWM):


Scope of Practice
Diving and hyperbaric medicine
Physics and physiology of depth Dive medicine Dysbarisms and barotrauma
Tropical and travel medicine
Immunizations for travel Tick-borne illness, malaria and tropical diseases Parasites and protozoal infections in the traveler Traveler's diarrhea Women's issues in traveling Safety and security while traveling Travel medicine Travel and tropical dermatology Fever in the returned traveler Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers STDs in the traveler
High-altitude and mountaineering medicine
Physics and physiology of altitude AMS, HAPE and HACE The effect of high altitude on underlying medical conditions
Expedition medicine
Basic (emergency) field dentistry Expedition planning, pre- and post-expedition responsibilities Camp safety and layout
Survival, field craft and equipment
Survival techniques and equipment Water procurement Food procurement Hiking and trekking Foot gear and care of the feet Clothing selection for wilderness survival Land navigation
Search and Rescue
Search and rescue theory and practice Evacuation of injured persons
Sports Medicine
rock climbing ultramarathons endurance sports kayaking / sailing etc.
Preventive medicine, field sanitation and hygiene
Field sanitation and hygiene measures Vector control and barriers Water purification methods
Environmental Medicine
Lightning injuries Submersion and drowning Envenomation and toxicology Animal attacks Heat Illness and dehydration Cold injuries and hypothermia Nutrition in extreme environments Aerospace medicine
Improvised Medicine
Improvised field wound management Improvisational medical techniques in the wilderness
Disaster and Humanitarian Assistance
Triage Field hospital provision Malnutrition therapy
Wilderness Emergencies and Trauma Care
Pre-hospital patient assessment Pain management in the wilderness setting Emergency airway management Psychological response to injury and stress Management of trauma and injuries Prolonged Field Care (PFC)

Epidemiology

The epidemiology of wilderness medicine is as broad as the patient groups, geography and activities in question. Common risks to many of these are gastointestinal upset, and minor injuries (ankle sprains, fractures, scrapes and lacerations) as well as the rarer and more serious disorders such as major trauma, heat related illnesses and cardiovascular disease (e.g. cardiac arrest).^[11] There are also a number of specific wilderness medical emergencies.

Austere environments interdisciplinary interface

Insights from the field of Military Combat Tactical Care (TCCC) interact with wilderness medical practice and protocol development. Moreover, new products and technologies tested in combat are adopted by wilderness medical personnel and vice versa.^[12] Experts in wilderness medicine come from various professional groups and specialist backgrounds including the military. More recently, advances in the development of Prolonged Field Care (PFC) guidelines has led to the development of military and civilian PFC courses,^[13] such as the international Austere Emergency Care course.^[14]^[15]

Notable Individuals

Prof Paul Auerbach (January 4, 1951 – June 23, 2021)(Wilderness Medicine)
Dr Jon Dallimore^[16]^[17] (Expedition Medicine)
Dr Luanne Freer (Founder Everest ER)
Dr Peter Hackett (Altitude Medicine)
Hon Prof. Mark Hannaford (Extreme Medicine)^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]
Dr Seth C. Hawkins (Wilderness Medicine)
Dr Olivia Kiwanuka ^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] (Founder Adventure Medicine)
Dr Sean Hudson MBE^[26]^[27] (Expedition Medicine)
Prof Chris Imray^[28] (Altitude Physiology)
Dr Kenneth Iserson^[29]^[30] (Improvised Medicine)
Col Sean Keenan^[31] (Prolonged Field Care, Special Operations Medicine)
Dr Burjor Langdana^[32]^[33] (Expedition Dentistry)
Dr Hannah Lock^[34]^[35] (Expedition & Mountain Medicine)
Mr Aebhric O’Kelly^[36]^[37] (Special Operations Medicine, Prolonged Field Care^[38]^[39])

Education

Few countries provide formal medical accreditation for specialists in wilderness medicine. The credentialing that exists is mostly drawn from professional organisations run for and by wilderness medicine clinicians. As a result, there is a huge variety in the education available for wilderness medicine, with only a few educational institutions specialising in this field. The Wilderness Medical Society is perhaps the oldest and most well established organisation in this area and has established international reach. The Wilderness Medical Society produce the Wilderness & Environmental Medicine journal and administer the Fellowship of the Academy of Wilderness Medicine (FAWM) award. The FAWM was first awarded in 2007 in 28 clinicians (20 men and 8 women).^[40] The FAWM continues today and recognised educational activity form a number of providers which provide credit towards the Fellowship. The College of Remote and Offshore Medicine (CoROM) in Malta offers FAWM credit as well as; undergraduate, postgraduate and short courses in wilderness medicine-related topics.^[41] and mountain medicine. An extreme medicine master's degree has run in partnership between World Extreme Medicine and the University of Exeter since 2016.^[42] There are a number of higher education and specialist qualifications available internationally:

Diplomas

DiMM / DipMtnMed (Mountain Medicine)
DipExpWildMed (RCPSG)
DiDMM (Dive and Marine Medicine)
DipROM (RCSEd)

Bachelors

BSc Remote Paramedic Practice (CoROM)^[43]

Masters Degrees

MSc Extreme Medicine, University of Exeter.^[44]
MSc Austere Critical Care (CoROM)^[45]

Fellowships (Academic)

FAWM - Fellow of the Wilderness Medical Society™ (3-5 year educational programme)^[40]^[46]
MFAWM - Master Fellow of the Wilderness Medical Society™^[47]

Fellowships (Contribution to the field)

FEWM - Fellow of Extreme and Wilderness Medicine (awarded for achievements and contribution to extreme medicine)^[48]
FRGS - Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (may be awarded for achievement in extreme, wilderness or expedition medicine)

Applications to Covid-19

As of April 2020^[update], studies and trials are underway that examine the possible benefits of nitric oxide in the treatment of COVID-19.^[49]^[50]^[51] This research is related to the role of nasal breathing in the creation of nitric oxide, which increases oxygen absorption in the lungs.^[52] Nitric oxide was also investigated as an experimental therapy for SARS.^[53]

Brian Strickland, MD, a fellow in Wilderness Medicine at Massachusetts General Hospital who studies "acute respiratory distress" in high altitudes, is applying this research towards COVID-19.^[54]^[55] He is currently involved in clinical trials which apply the use of inhaled nitric oxide as a treatment for COVID-19.^[56] This approach was inspired by the work of associate professor of Emergency Medicine at the Harvard Medical School N. Stuart Harris, who has been studying the effects of altitude sickness on mountain climbers, such as those who climb Mount Everest. Harris noticed that the consequences of high level altitude sickness on the human body mirrored COVID-19's dysfunctional impact on the lungs. His focus on nitric oxide comes from its role in being able to breathe in high altitudes.^[54]^[57]

References

^ Hawkins, SC (2018). Wilderness EMS. Wolters Kluwer. p. 21. ISBN 9781496349453.
^ Auerbach, PS (2017). Auerbach's Wilderness Medicine, 7e. Elsevier. p. 1200. ISBN 978-0323359429.
^ Cone, David (2021). "Wilderness EMS". Emergency Medical Services: Clinical Practice and Systems Oversight, 3e. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 9781118865309.
^ "Wilderness Medicine Fellowship". Stanford University. Retrieved 2020-06-28.
^ Imray, C. H.; Grocott, M. P.; Wilson, M. H.; Hughes, A.; Auerbach, P. S. (2015). "Extreme, expedition, and wilderness medicine". Lancet. 386 (10012): 2520–2525. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01165-4. PMID 26738718. S2CID 11441616.
^ O'Kelly, Aebhric; Mallinson, Tom (2023-09-02). "Prolonged field care (austere emergency care) principles in UK paramedic practice". Journal of Paramedic Practice. 15 (9): 359–366. doi:10.12968/jpar.2023.15.9.359. ISSN 1759-1376.
^ "Austere Emergency Care – CoROM". Retrieved 2023-04-04.
^ "AEC Courses". Specialized Medical Standards. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
^ Mallinson, Tom (2010-10-22). "Wilderness medicine: a fellowship programme". Journal of Paramedic Practice. 2 (10): 488–491. doi:10.12968/jpar.2010.2.10.79206. ISSN 1759-1376.
^ "Master - Overview". wms.org. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "Outdoor Emergencies and Injuries". Yale Medicine. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
^ Will Smith. "Taking Combat Medicine to the EMS and Wilderness Settings". Retrieved February 11, 2010.
^ "Austere Emergency Care". Specialized Medical Standards. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "Austere Emergency Care – CoROM". Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "AEC Courses". Specialized Medical Standards. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "Disease Surveillance Fact Sheet" (PDF).
^ "Disease Surveillance and Monitoring | About | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2018-11-04.
^ "Global Extreme Medicine expert receives honorary degree". University of Exeter. 2021-12-13. Archived from the original on 2023-02-27.
^ "Devon based Medics4Ukraine share vital work with Ukrainian Ambassador". March 2023.
^ "Extreme medicine: What it's like being a medic in the world's most dangerous places".
^ "World Extreme Medicine founder Mark Hannaford is from Beer in Devon". 23 July 2023.
^ Kiwanuka, Olivia (May 31, 2023). "Challenges and possibilities with space travel". Läkartidningen. 120 (22135). PMID 37255319.
^ Kiwanuka, Olivia (2015). "High altitude medicine is a concern also for Swedish primary care. Knowledge needed to identify high risk patients and provide appropriate advice". Läkartidningen. 112. PMID 26010843.
^ Kiwanuka, Olivia. Going High. Adventure Medicine.
^ Kiwanuka, Olivia. Vildmarksmedicin. Calazo.
^ "Expedition Medicine Book". Expedition & Wilderness Medicine. 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
^ "Queen's honour for former West Cumbrian GP". 23 June 2017.
^ "Professor Chris Imray - CASE". case-medicine.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
^ "Kenneth V. Iserson, MD, MBA, FACEP | Department of Emergency Medicine". emergencymed.arizona.edu. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
^ "Improvised Medicine: Providing Care in Extreme Environments by Kenneth Iserson | Waterstones".
^ Development, PodBean. "COL (R) Sean Keenan, MD- Special Operations Doc: Training and Execution of Tactical Combat Casualty Care at the Point of Injury | WarDocs - The Military Medicine Podcast". wardocspodcast.podbean.com. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "Tutor - Burjor Langdana". rcpsg.ac.uk. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
^ "Wilderness Dentistry - About Us". Wilderness Expedition Dentistry. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
^ "1#8 Hannah Lock: the expedition doctor". mountain air | podcast. Retrieved 2023-03-04.
^ "About us". More Adventure. Retrieved 2023-03-04.
^ "Interim Faculty Advisory Board (FAB) Members | RCSEd". www.rcsed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
^ "SOMA | SOMSA Lab". www.specialoperationsmedicine.org. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
^ Boyle, Janet (19 December 2023). "Ambulance paramedics may get military training in ways to keep queuing patients alive". The Sunday Post. Retrieved 2024-01-02.
^ "NSOCM NURSING CARE HANDOUT: Nursing care based on the SHEEP VOMIT mnemonic" (PDF). 2018.
^ ^a ^b "Master - Overview WMS". wms.org. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
^ "Intensive Care for Austere and Remote Environments (ICARE) – CoROM". Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "Extreme Medicine MSC (Distance) | Postgraduate Taught | University of Exeter".
^ "BSc Remote Paramedic Practice | CoROM - College of Remote and Offshore Medicine Foundation". Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "Extreme Medicine MSc". World Extreme Medicine. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
^ "MSc Austere Critical Care | CoROM - College of Remote and Offshore Medicine Foundation". corom.edu.mt. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
^ "Fellowship in the Academy of Wilderness Medicine – CoROM". Retrieved 2022-11-22.
^ "Master Fellowship". wms.org. Retrieved 2023-02-09.
^ "Fellowship of Extreme & Wilderness Medicine | World Extreme Medicine". Fellowship of Extreme, and Wilderness Medicine. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
^ Katsnelson, Alla (2020-05-20). "Multiple clinical trials test whether NO gas can treat and prevent COVID-19". Chemical & Engineering News. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
^ Gander, Kashmira (2020-04-07). "What Is Nitric Oxide? How the Gas That Gave Us Viagra Could Help Treat Coronavirus Patients". Newsweek. Retrieved 2020-06-25.
^ "Nitric Oxide Investigated as COVID-19 Treatment". WebMD. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
^ Glazier, M.D., Eve (2019-11-04). "'Nose breathing has more benefits than mouth breathing". The Times and Democrat. Retrieved 2020-07-09.
^ Åkerström, Sara; Mousavi-Jazi, Mehrdad; Klingström, Jonas; Leijon, Mikael; Lundkvist, Åke; Mirazimi, Ali (1 February 2005). "Nitric Oxide Inhibits the Replication Cycle of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus". Journal of Virology. 79 (3): 1966–1969. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.3.1966-1969.2005. PMC 544093. PMID 15650225.
^ ^a ^b Powell, Alvin (2020-05-06). "Applying wisdom from the Himalayas to the ER's COVID battle". The Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 2020-06-25.
^ "Lessons from the Backcountry in Finding a Potential COVID-19 Treatment". Massachusetts General Hospital. 2020-06-24. Retrieved 2020-06-25.
^ "Inhaled Nitric Oxide Therapy for Emergency Room COVID-19 Patients". Massachusetts General Hospital. 2020-06-24. Retrieved 2020-06-25.
^ Meredith, Sam (2020-05-01). "How the gas that gave the world Viagra could help treat coronavirus patients". CNBC. Retrieved 2020-07-05.

External links

Media related to Wilderness medicine at Wikimedia Commons
Wilderness Medics, produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting.

[WEMS-1] Hawkins, SC (2018). Wilderness EMS. Wolters Kluwer. p. 21. ISBN 9781496349453.

[Auerbach-2] Auerbach, PS (2017). Auerbach's Wilderness Medicine, 7e. Elsevier. p. 1200. ISBN 978-0323359429.

[NAEMSP-3] Cone, David (2021). "Wilderness EMS". Emergency Medical Services: Clinical Practice and Systems Oversight, 3e. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 9781118865309.

[stanfordwm-4] "Wilderness Medicine Fellowship". Stanford University. Retrieved 2020-06-28.

[5] Imray, C. H.; Grocott, M. P.; Wilson, M. H.; Hughes, A.; Auerbach, P. S. (2015). "Extreme, expedition, and wilderness medicine". Lancet. 386 (10012): 2520–2525. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01165-4. PMID 26738718. S2CID 11441616.

[6] O'Kelly, Aebhric; Mallinson, Tom (2023-09-02). "Prolonged field care (austere emergency care) principles in UK paramedic practice". Journal of Paramedic Practice. 15 (9): 359–366. doi:10.12968/jpar.2023.15.9.359. ISSN 1759-1376.

[7] "Austere Emergency Care – CoROM". Retrieved 2023-04-04.

[8] "AEC Courses". Specialized Medical Standards. Retrieved 2023-04-04.

[:1-9] Mallinson, Tom (2010-10-22). "Wilderness medicine: a fellowship programme". Journal of Paramedic Practice. 2 (10): 488–491. doi:10.12968/jpar.2010.2.10.79206. ISSN 1759-1376.

[10] "Master - Overview". wms.org. Retrieved 2023-03-19.

[11] "Outdoor Emergencies and Injuries". Yale Medicine. Retrieved 2023-04-04.

[Smith-12] Will Smith. "Taking Combat Medicine to the EMS and Wilderness Settings". Retrieved February 11, 2010.

[13] "Austere Emergency Care". Specialized Medical Standards. Retrieved 2023-03-19.

[14] "Austere Emergency Care – CoROM". Retrieved 2023-03-19.

[15] "AEC Courses". Specialized Medical Standards. Retrieved 2023-03-19.

[:2-16] "Disease Surveillance Fact Sheet" (PDF).

[:3-17] "Disease Surveillance and Monitoring | About | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2018-11-04.

[18] "Global Extreme Medicine expert receives honorary degree". University of Exeter. 2021-12-13. Archived from the original on 2023-02-27.

[19] "Devon based Medics4Ukraine share vital work with Ukrainian Ambassador". March 2023.

[20] "Extreme medicine: What it's like being a medic in the world's most dangerous places".

[21] "World Extreme Medicine founder Mark Hannaford is from Beer in Devon". 23 July 2023.

[22] Kiwanuka, Olivia (May 31, 2023). "Challenges and possibilities with space travel". Läkartidningen. 120 (22135). PMID 37255319.

[23] Kiwanuka, Olivia (2015). "High altitude medicine is a concern also for Swedish primary care. Knowledge needed to identify high risk patients and provide appropriate advice". Läkartidningen. 112. PMID 26010843.

[24] Kiwanuka, Olivia. Going High. Adventure Medicine.

[25] Kiwanuka, Olivia. Vildmarksmedicin. Calazo.

[26] "Expedition Medicine Book". Expedition & Wilderness Medicine. 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2023-04-04.

[27] "Queen's honour for former West Cumbrian GP". 23 June 2017.

[28] "Professor Chris Imray - CASE". case-medicine.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-04-04.

[29] "Kenneth V. Iserson, MD, MBA, FACEP | Department of Emergency Medicine". emergencymed.arizona.edu. Retrieved 2022-11-27.

[30] "Improvised Medicine: Providing Care in Extreme Environments by Kenneth Iserson | Waterstones".

[31] Development, PodBean. "COL (R) Sean Keenan, MD- Special Operations Doc: Training and Execution of Tactical Combat Casualty Care at the Point of Injury | WarDocs - The Military Medicine Podcast". wardocspodcast.podbean.com. Retrieved 2023-03-19.

[32] "Tutor - Burjor Langdana". rcpsg.ac.uk. Retrieved 2023-04-04.

[33] "Wilderness Dentistry - About Us". Wilderness Expedition Dentistry. Retrieved 2023-04-04.

[34] "1#8 Hannah Lock: the expedition doctor". mountain air | podcast. Retrieved 2023-03-04.

[35] "About us". More Adventure. Retrieved 2023-03-04.

[36] "Interim Faculty Advisory Board (FAB) Members | RCSEd". www.rcsed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-11-27.

[37] "SOMA | SOMSA Lab". www.specialoperationsmedicine.org. Retrieved 2022-11-27.

[38] Boyle, Janet (19 December 2023). "Ambulance paramedics may get military training in ways to keep queuing patients alive". The Sunday Post. Retrieved 2024-01-02.

[39] "NSOCM NURSING CARE HANDOUT: Nursing care based on the SHEEP VOMIT mnemonic" (PDF). 2018.

[:4-40] "Master - Overview WMS". wms.org. Retrieved 2022-11-22.

[41] "Intensive Care for Austere and Remote Environments (ICARE) – CoROM". Retrieved 2023-03-19.

[exeter.ac.uk-42] "Extreme Medicine MSC (Distance) | Postgraduate Taught | University of Exeter".

[43] "BSc Remote Paramedic Practice | CoROM - College of Remote and Offshore Medicine Foundation". Retrieved 2023-03-19.

[44] "Extreme Medicine MSc". World Extreme Medicine. Retrieved 2022-11-22.

[45] "MSc Austere Critical Care | CoROM - College of Remote and Offshore Medicine Foundation". corom.edu.mt. Retrieved 2022-11-22.

[46] "Fellowship in the Academy of Wilderness Medicine – CoROM". Retrieved 2022-11-22.

[47] "Master Fellowship". wms.org. Retrieved 2023-02-09.

[48] "Fellowship of Extreme & Wilderness Medicine | World Extreme Medicine". Fellowship of Extreme, and Wilderness Medicine. Retrieved 2022-11-22.

[multiple-49] Katsnelson, Alla (2020-05-20). "Multiple clinical trials test whether NO gas can treat and prevent COVID-19". Chemical & Engineering News. Retrieved 2020-07-14.

[nw-50] Gander, Kashmira (2020-04-07). "What Is Nitric Oxide? How the Gas That Gave Us Viagra Could Help Treat Coronavirus Patients". Newsweek. Retrieved 2020-06-25.

[51] "Nitric Oxide Investigated as COVID-19 Treatment". WebMD. Retrieved 10 April 2020.

[more-52] Glazier, M.D., Eve (2019-11-04). "'Nose breathing has more benefits than mouth breathing". The Times and Democrat. Retrieved 2020-07-09.

[53] Åkerström, Sara; Mousavi-Jazi, Mehrdad; Klingström, Jonas; Leijon, Mikael; Lundkvist, Åke; Mirazimi, Ali (1 February 2005). "Nitric Oxide Inhibits the Replication Cycle of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus". Journal of Virology. 79 (3): 1966–1969. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.3.1966-1969.2005. PMC 544093. PMID 15650225.

[wisdom-54] Powell, Alvin (2020-05-06). "Applying wisdom from the Himalayas to the ER's COVID battle". The Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 2020-06-25.

[lessons-55] "Lessons from the Backcountry in Finding a Potential COVID-19 Treatment". Massachusetts General Hospital. 2020-06-24. Retrieved 2020-06-25.

[er-56] "Inhaled Nitric Oxide Therapy for Emergency Room COVID-19 Patients". Massachusetts General Hospital. 2020-06-24. Retrieved 2020-06-25.

[cnbc-57] Meredith, Sam (2020-05-01). "How the gas that gave the world Viagra could help treat coronavirus patients". CNBC. Retrieved 2020-07-05.

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Wilderness medicine

Scope

Epidemiology

Austere environments interdisciplinary interface

Notable Individuals

Education

Applications to Covid-19

See also

References

External links

This information is adapted from Wikipedia which is publicly available.

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