Somali–Portuguese conflicts

Somali–Portuguese conflicts

16th century map by Abraham Ortelius depicting the Portuguese Empire engaging with the city of Barawa
Date1499–1543[1]
(44 years)
Location
Ethiopia, Horn of Africa
Result Portuguese failure
Belligerents

Supported by:

Supported by:

Commanders and leaders
Ethiopian Empire Seble Wongel		 Ahmad ibn Ibrahim †
Nur ibn Mujahid
Matan ibn Uthman †
Sayid Mehmed †
'Umar al-Malik
Rasūl ibn 'Ali
Ottoman Empire Mir Ali Beg  (POW) (1585–89)

Somali–Portuguese conflicts refers to the armed engagements between Portuguese forces and Somali forces,[2][3] namely those of the Adal Sultanate and the cities of Barawa and Mogadishu in the 16th century.[4][5][6]

Portugal made a notable intervention in the Ethiopian–Adal War on the side of Christian Ethiopia and although Cristóvão da Gama, the commander of the Portuguese expeditionary corps was captured and executed for not converting to Islam, the remaining Portuguese continued the campaign, and Ethiopia was ultimately defended successfully.[7][8][9]

Background

The first known Portuguese to come into contact with the Horn of Africa was king John IIs explorer and spy Pero da Covilhã.[10] Covilhã landed at Zeila in 1487 and made his way to Ethiopia, where he was forced to marry and settle for the rest of his life.[11] It's not clear, however, whether he ever managed to transmit any knowledge back to Portugal.[11][10]

Nevertheless, direct and official contact between Portugal and the Horn was only established by Vasco da Gama during his expedition to reach India from Europe directly by sea.[12]

At the time, the Muslim Sultanate of Adal and the cities of Barawa (Brava in Portuguese) and Mogadishu (Mogadoxo in Portuguese) were among the states in east-Africa that were involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and their political, commercial and religious alignment with Mamluk Egypt and then the Ottoman Empire meant that they were hostile to the presence of the Portuguese in the region.[13]

Somalis, similar to Harari people, were historically known to Europeans as "Moors" partly due to their millennia-old ties with the Arab world.[14] According to the explorer Francisco de Almeida, as well as Duarte Barbosa, "Moors" dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries prior to the arrival of the Portuguese.[15][16][17]

After the Adal Sultanate had invaded the Ethiopian Empire with the support of the Ottoman Empire, the Portuguese intervened on behalf of Ethiopian Emperor Gelawdewos against Adal.[18][19]

Early engagements

Mogadishu incident, 1499

Upon sailing past Mogadishu on his way back to Portugal from the Malabar Coast, Vasco da Gama unfounded, bombarded the ships anchored in the harbour, damaging a few. He then continued his journey back to Portugal at a safe distance.[20][21]

Battle of Barawa, 1507

Main article: Battle of Barawa

At the request of the king of Malindi, who was an ally of the Portuguese, Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de Albuquerque attacked the rival city of Barawa in 1505, with a force of 1500 men and 16 ships.[22] Barawa had 4000 warriors and its authorities were offered the chance to submit peacefully, but they refused.[22] It was therefore assaulted and sacked.[22][23]

Zeila raid, 1513

Shortly before the 1513 siege of Aden, the Portuguese governor of India Afonso de Albuquerque detached a two ship squadron to scout Zeila.[24] Its captains Ruy Galvão and João Gomes were unable to land due to the opposition of the inhabitants, hence they burned twenty large ships they found in the harbour.[25]

Battle of Zeila, 1517

Main article: Battle of Zeila
Portuguese naus and caravels depicted in a 16th-century watercolour.

After the Portuguese governor of India Lopo Soares de Albergaria had conducted a campaign on the Red Sea in 1517, he razed the city of Zeila, whose garrison was away at the time and whose commander had recently been killed in combat while on campaign elsewhere, in Ethiopia.[26][27]

Berbera raid, 1518

In 1518, the Portuguese led by António de Saldanha directed a six battleship naval attack towards Berbera. The inhabitants were however alert and upon receiving news of the presence of a Portuguese fleet in the region, evacuated the city with all their belongings. The city was then razed by the Portuguese.[28][29]

Battle of Massawa, 1541

Main article: Battle of Massawa (1541)

In 1541, troops of the Adal Sultanate attacked and killed all but two of a party of 100 Portuguese commanded by António Correia, who had mutinied and gone ashore at Massawa.[30][31][32][33]

Battle of Benadir, 1542

Main article: Battle of Benadir

After the Portuguese conducted a large-scale naval expedition to Suez in 1541, the Ottoman Empire dedicated greater resources into protecting the Red Sea from Portuguese intrusion. To such effect, about 25 galleys were armed and stationed at Aden.[34]

Portuguese oarship.

Having received reports from allied Swahili city-states that the hostile city of Mogadishu had appealed for Ottoman military support in preparation for a revolt against Portugal, the Portuguese captain of fort São Caetano at Sofala João de Sepúlveda departed with 100 soldiers, six oarships and a contingent of allied warriors and ships from Malindi, and upon arriving at Mogadishu "destroyed the city and did them great damage and injury".[35] Barawa was also sacked in retaliation for its inhabitants having delivered a few Portuguese prisoners to the Turks.[36] After signing new peace treaties with the rulers of both cities, Sepúlveda returned to Malindi.[36]

Abyssinian-Adal War

Main article: Abyssinian-Adal War

Battle of Jarte 1542

Main article: Battle of Jarte

The Ethiopian Empire had appealed for Portuguese military aid against the invading Adal Sultanate, and the Portuguese governor of India Dom Estevão da Gama dispatched his brother Cristóvão da Gama to Ethiopia as the head of an expeditionary corps of 400 soldiers to the aid of Emperor Gelawdewos.[37][38][39]

16th century Portuguese naval and war banner, featuring the Cross of the Order of Christ.

The Adal general Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi confronted Gama and the Portuguese at the Battle of Jarte, when he attempted to assault a Portuguese fortified camp.[40] The Portuguese however, seized the initiative and marched out to attack the Adalites vigorously, routed their Turkish mercenaries and wounded Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi himself, causing the Adalite army to flee.[40] The Portuguese suffered 11 dead and 50 wounded, against over 370 of the enemy.[40]

Battle of Bacente, February 1542

Main article: Battle of Baçente

After invading part of Ethiopia, the Sultanate of Adal had occupied the Ethiopian mountain-top fortress of Bacente or Amba Senayt. It was garrisoned with 1500 archers and buckler-men. In February 1542, the Portuguese under Cristóvão da Gama stormed the fortress, suffering 8 dead in the process, but capturing the place, while the entire Adalite garrison was slaughtered by the Portuguese or the native Ethiopians.[41] The expeditionary force spent the rest of February there, recovering from the battle.[42]

Battle of the Hill of the Jews 1542

Main article: Battle of the Hill of the Jews
Ethiopians, depicted in the Códice Casanatense.

At the Battle of the Hill of the Jews, a Portuguese detachment personally commanded by Dom Cristóvão da Gama captured a hill controlled by an Adalite contingent of warriors, where valuable horses grazed. Dom Cristóvão then left a number of men behind to secure the animals and returned to camp, before fighting in the Battle of Wofla.[43]

Battle of Wofla, August 1542

Main article: Battle of Wofla

Following their defeat at Jarte, Gragn requested aid from the governor of Ottoman Yemen, who provided him with a retinue of Turkish, Arab, and Albanian troops that would assist him in the Battle of Wofla.[44]

On August 28, 1542 a large Adal army, which included a contingent of 2000 Arabian arquebusiers and 900 Turkish arquebusiers attacked the Portuguese at Wofla, successfully forcing them to flee their fortified camp erected upon a hill, killing 200. Dom Cristóvão was captured that night along with 14 comrades by followers of Imam Ahmad, who later personally executed him.[45]

Battle of Wayna Daga, 1543

Main article: Battle of Wayna Daga
19th century folk painting of the Battle of Wayna Daga.

The Portuguese survivors of the Battle of Wofla managed to evade capture and then link up with the army of Emperor Gelawdewos, and requested that they avenge the death of Dom Cristóvão.[46] The Portuguese would accept no other commander in replacement of Dom Cristóvão other than the Emperor himself. Large number of warriors flocked to the banner of the Emperor, and they marched out against Imam Ahmad, who had pitched camp near Lake Tana.[46] On 13 February 1543, they defeated in Wogera an Adal detachment led by the Imam's lieutenant Sayid Mehmed, who was killed in the action. Prisonores then revealed the location of al-Ghazis camp.[47]

At the Battle of Wayna Daga on 21 February 1543, the Ethiopians engaged the Adalites with the Portuguese in the vanguard. The Portuguese charged the Muslim army, followed by the Ethiopians. The Imam, seeing his men lose ground, moved up to encourage them, but upon approaching the Portuguese he was fatally shot. Tradition states that Imam Ahmad was shot in the chest by a Portuguese musketeer named João de Castilho, who had charged alone into the Muslim lines and died. The wounded Imam was then beheaded by an Ethiopian cavalry commander, Azmach Calite.[48]

Soon after this, some of the Muslims attempted to flee, while others tried to stop them, resulting in their hindrance of one another. Witnessing their disorder and confusion, the Portuguese attacked, killing many. Simultaneously, the army of Gelawdewos attacked the Muslim rear, leading to a devastating rout, the fleeing Muslims pursued by the Ethiopians and Portuguese who cut them down as they ran back to their camp. The Portuguese suffered 4 dead in this battle, while reportedly half of the Muslim army either surrendered or was killed.[49][50]

Later conflicts

Berbera raid, 1550

1542 Portuguese sketch of the Gates of the Red Sea, by João de Castro.

In February 1550, the Portuguese governor of India Jorge Cabral dispatched Gonçalo Vaz de Távora to the Red Sea with four oarships to gather information regarding the Ottomans and the Portuguese in Ethiopia.[51] Távora reached Massawa and on his way back attacked Berbera, whose inhabitants hurriedly evacuated the city as soon as they sighted the Portuguese ships.[51] The houses were then sacked and torched.[51]

Through a number of prisoners captured at Berbera the Portuguese learnt that the Ottomans were preparing a campaign, but the objective of which was unknown.[51] A number of tradeships were then captured along the coast.[51] Távora reached Goa on May 17, 1550.[51]

1585-1589 revolt in South East Africa

Main article: Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1586–1589)

In 1585, the Turkish privateer Mir Ali Beg sailed to Southeastern Africa and convinced the cities on the Swahili coast to declare their allegiance to the Ottoman Empire and revolt against Portuguese suzerainty in the region. Mogadishu and Barawa joined the revolt and supplied Mir Ali Beg with men and ships. He later erected a stronghold in Mombasa and extracted tribute from the cities nearby, but two punitive Portuguese campaigns dispatched by Tomé de Souza in 1588 and 1589 reestablished Portuguese authority along the coast for the next century to come.[52][53][54]

Aftermath

Effigy of Dom Cristóvão da Gama at the Monument of the Discovery Age in Lisbon.

The Omani Ya'rubids challenged Portuguese supremacy on the east African coast in the 17th century, and after decades of conflict in 1698 captured Fort Jesus at the Siege of Mombasa, marking the end of Portuguese political and commercial influence north of this region.[55][56]

The siege would have a significant impact on the power dynamics in the Swahili coast. Soon after, the Omanis took over Kilwa, Pemba Island and Zanzibar. The Portuguese sphere was reduced to Mozambique from where several attempts were made to restore hegemony in East Africa, but to no avail.[57][58]

In recent times, the Portuguese navy has resumed operations in the Horn area, against unofficial groups of Somali pirates as part of NATOs Operation Allied Protector, Operation Ocean Shield and the European Unions Operation Atalanta.

See also

References

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  2. ^ Frederiks, Martha (2015-01-01), "Introduction: Christians, Muslims and empires in the 16th century", Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 7 Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and South America (1500-1600), pp. 1–14, ISBN 978-90-04-29848-4
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Sources

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Cet article est une ébauche concernant les Jeux olympiques. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. Grande-Bretagne aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 1948 Code CIO GBR Comité BOA Lieu Londres Participation 10e Athlètes 404 (335 homme et 68 femme) dans 21 sports Porte-drapeau John Emrys Lloyd MédaillesRang : 12e Or3 Arg.14 Bron.6 Total23 Historique Jeux olympiques d'été 1896 1900 1904 1908 1912 19...

 

جاست جوردن

فقط جوردن النوع كوميدي بطولة جيمس تشارلز لويس البلد الولايات المتحدة  لغة العمل الإنجليزية عدد المواسم 2   عدد الحلقات 29 حلقة مدة العرض 22 دقيقة  القناة نيكلوديون  بث لأول مرة في 7 يناير 2007  بث لآخر مرة في 5 أبريل 2008  IMDb.com صفحة البرنامج  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   ...

 

Dead or Alive 5 Last Round

Cet article est une ébauche concernant le jeu vidéo. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) (voir l’aide à la rédaction). Dead or Alive 5Last RoundDéveloppeur Team NinjaÉditeur Koei TecmoRéalisateur Yosuke Hayashi (Producteur) Yohei Shimbori (Réalisateur)Date de sortie AN : 17 février 2015JAP : 19 février 2015EUR : 20 février 2015 Genre Jeu de combatMode de jeu Solo, multijoueurPlate-forme PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360,...

Neuroradiology

Medical specialty Neuroradiology is a subspecialty of radiology focusing on the diagnosis and characterization of abnormalities of the central and peripheral nervous system, spine, and head and neck using neuroimaging techniques. Medical issues utilizing neuroradiology include arteriovenous malformations, tumors, aneurysms, and strokes. [1] Professional organizations The major professional association in the United States representing neuroradiologists is the American Society of Neuro...

 

芝原千弥子

此條目的作品列表需要依照格式指南編寫。請協助將內容整理成更清晰易讀的列表或表格。 (2015年2月6日)列表項目應該按照年代自最早向下寫到最新。若記載種目較多則在考慮除去細項後用表格提供總覽。 日語寫法日語原文芝原 チヤコ假名しばはら ちやこ平文式罗马字Shibahara Chiyako 芝原千弥子（日语：芝原チヤコ，1970年8月9日—）是日本埼玉縣出身的女性聲優。她配的主�...

 

Fidelio

Only opera by Ludwig van Beethoven This article is about Beethoven's only opera. For other uses, see Fidelio (disambiguation). FidelioOpera by Ludwig van BeethovenFidelio, playbill of the third and finalized premiere at the Kärntnertortheater in Vienna, 23 May 1814LibrettistOriginally prepared by Joseph Sonnleithner, from the French of Jean-Nicolas Bouilly. Later shortened by Stephan von Breuning and edited by Georg Friedrich Treitschke.LanguageGermanPremiereOriginal premiere 20 Novembe...

Marie Séraphique

Slave ship Painting of Marie Séraphique slave ship The Marie Séraphique was a late 18th-century slave ship that made six slave voyages out of Nantes, France.[1][2] There are two illustrations of the ship that show how captives travelled, believed to have been painted by the captain and second lieutenant. There is a diagram showing densely-packed shackled slaves on the ship, and a painting showing slaves being sold aboard. Construction Slave shackles Marie Séraphique was bui...

 

Diving at the 2014 Commonwealth Games – Men's synchronised 10 metre platform

Men's synchronised 10 metre platform at the 2014 Commonwealth GamesVenueStrathclyde Country ParkDateAugust 1Competitors8 from 4 nationsWinning sore399.54Medalists  Matthew MitchamDomonic Bedggood   Australia Tom DaleyJames Denny   England← 20102018 → Diving at the2014 Commonwealth GamesIndividual1 m Springboardmenwomen3 m Springboardmenwomen10 m platformmenwomenSynchronised3 m Springboardmenwomen10 m platformmenwomenvte ...