Shivaji's Southern campaigns are also defined as Maratha invasion of Karnataka and Dakshina Digvijaya campaigns. Following his coronation as sovereign ruler, Shivaji faced a tumultuous period marked by the loss of his trusted advisor and mother, Jijabai, and escalating conflicts with neighboring powers.
Amidst personal grief, Shivaji displayed his resolve by launching a raid on Portuguese territories around Bassein in 1674, signaling his determination to assert Maratha authority in the region. Despite initial tensions, Shivaji's military prowess compelled the Portuguese to seek reconciliation, averting potential conflict. However, Shivaji's aspirations extended beyond territorial consolidation. Recognizing the strategic importance of the predominantly Hindu south, loosely held by Bijapur and Golconda, Shivaji formulated ambitious plans for expansion. His conquests in this region, marked by the capture of strategic forts like Kopbal, Vellore, and Jinji, significantly augmented his dominion and established a strong foothold in Southern India.
Political background
Death of Jijabai
Following Shivaji's coronation, his mother, Jijabai, passed away, leaving a profound impact on the young king. Jijabai had long served as Shivaji's trusted advisor, providing counsel and support during times of uncertainty. Despite her high status as a Maratha lady, she had chosen to remain by Shivaji's side instead of following her husband into the fire, demonstrating her unwavering devotion to her son.[4] Jijabai's sudden illness, possibly exacerbated by the excitement surrounding Shivaji's coronation ceremony, led to her untimely demise within a matter of days. Despite the efforts of doctors, her condition worsened rapidly, prompting her to distribute much of her wealth among the Brahman community, particularly the priests of Pratapgad. On the fifth day of her illness, Jijabai passed away, and her body was cremated at Raigad.[4]
Raid on Portuguese Districts
In the midst of his grief over his mother's passing, Shivaji sought solace in military endeavors. In 1674, he organized a raid on the Portuguese districts around Bassein, demonstrating his resolve to assert Maratha authority in the region. Under the leadership of Moro Pingle, a sizable force was dispatched to Kalyan, with a demand for chauth, citing grievances over the forced conversion of Hindus to Christianity by the Portuguese.[4]
Despite the potential conflict, the Portuguese opted to appease Shivaji rather than risk his wrath. They likely paid a sum of money to avert the threat of chauth, effectively diffusing the situation. However, the following year saw unrest as a large group of Kolis and other irregulars from the Dharampur state invaded the Kalyan district, posing a new challenge for Shivaji's administration.[4]
Conflict with the Mughals and Further Military Actions
Shivaji's coronation and assumption of sovereignty were grand, but his actual rule extended only around two hundred miles, facing threats from the Siddis, Portuguese, and Mughals. To expand, he targeted the predominantly Hindu south, held loosely by Bijapur and Golconda. These regions, once pursued by Shahji, set the stage for Shivaji's southern ambitions.[5][6][7] Amid escalating tensions with the Moghul forces, Shivaji's commander Moro Pingle retaliated by reclaiming the forts of Aundha and Patta in Khandesh. In a subsequent effort to capture Shivner, Shivaji launched a second assault, which proved more successful than the initial attempt. Despite scaling the fort walls with a contingent of three hundred Marathas, the gallant and experienced governor, Abdul Aziz Khan, managed to repel the attack, capturing the invaders' rope ladders and forcing them into the interior of the fort. Following a day of fierce resistance, the surviving Marathas surrendered, with Abdul Aziz Khan boldly sending them back to Shivaji and inviting him to launch another assault with their aid.[4]
However, Shivaji had set his sights on overcoming the resistance at the Phonda fort. After raising the siege of Shivner, he marched southward, invading the open countryside around Phaltan, which had been recovered by Abdul Karim two years earlier. Proceeding to besiege Phonda, Shivaji encountered further challenges as the Naik Nimbalkar retook Phaltan and expelled Maratha garrisons. Undeterred, Shivaji persisted in his siege of Phonda, where the commandant valiantly defended the fort until April 1676, when an explosion undermined its walls, forcing its capitulation.[4]
With Phonda secured, Shivaji now had a clear path southward. He marched along the coast, levying substantial contributions from the Raja of Sonda, establishing forts to assert dominance in the region, and conducting raids, including the plundering of the town of Karwar. During Shivaji's absence, Hambirrao Mohite, the new cavalry commander-in-chief, led successful raids into Moghul territories in Gujarat, extending as far as Broach, and safely bringing back his booty to Raygad.Meanwhile, the Sidi of Janjira launched a naval descent along Shivaji's coastline, further complicating the military situation and adding to the challenges faced by Shivaji's administration.[4]
Shivaji's Post-Konkan Campaign and Strategic Planning
Shivaji Leading his army
Following the conclusion of the rainy season in 1676, Shivaji directed his attention back to the Phaltan region. Once again, he expelled the Naik Nimbalkar from the area and fortified his control by constructing four forts—Wardhangad, Bhushangad, Sadashivagad, and Machendragad—between Tathwada and Panhala. These fortifications solidified his dominance over Nimbalkar's territory. However, the exertions of the recent Konkan campaign took a toll on Shivaji's health, leading to intermittent fever that confined him to bed at Satara for several months. Rumors even circulated suggesting that his son Sambhaji had poisoned him, although these claims lacked substantiation.[4][7]
Despite his illness, Shivaji's strategic acumen remained sharp. During his convalescence, he conceived an expedition characterized by boldness in design and skill in execution, which would ultimately elevate him to the forefront of the world's greatest military leaders.[original research?]
To fully grasp the significance of Shivaji's ambitious campaign, it is necessary to revisit events in Bijapur. Following the death of Ali Adil Shah, two prominent Bijapur nobles, Khavas Khan and Abdul Karim, vied for power. Khavas Khan, an Abyssinian leader, aligned himself with the African and Deccan factions, while Abdul Karim, an Afghan adventurer, sought to consolidate his influence. Khavas Khan, appointed regent by the ailing king, pursued an alliance with Bahadur Khan, the Moghul viceroy of the Deccan. This alliance, cemented by betrothals between their respective offspring, aimed to establish Bijapur as a Moghul fiefdom. In response, Abdul Karim, sensing his impending downfall, resorted to treachery, feigning reconciliation while plotting against his adversaries.[4][7][8]
In this volatile political landscape, Shivaji's calculated maneuvers and strategic foresight positioned him to exploit the unfolding chaos in Bijapur to his advantage.[4][8]
Prelude
Motives of the Karnataka campaign
A short peace between the Mughals and the Maratha stipulated around September 1676, which directly authorised Bahadur Khan to abrogate garrisons that were stationed on his western frontier for deterrence against Maratha desecrations and thus assembled an army for a prolonged war against Bijapur.[9]
As Bhimsen tells us:
“Bahadur Khan came to friendly terms with Shivaji who dispatched four thousand horsemen for the help of the Mughals. The Khan collected many royal servants mainly from the category of faujdars. And thus the Mughals formed such an army that a single puff from them could have finished the existence of Bijapur."
— Bhimsen, The Mughal court writer
When this direct Mughal threat augmented by the Mughal-Maratha peace, engrossed the intentness of the Adilshahi army, Shivaji freely executed his own conspires to carry his army to the eastern coast and conquer the rich province of Adilshahi Karnataka.[9]
Formation of Alliances with Golconda
Maddana Hindu Minister of Golconda
In pursuit of the common good and to thwart the machinations of his adversaries, Shivaji orchestrated a cunning plan to manipulate the slow-witted African, Khavas Khan, into visiting him at his residence in Bijapur. During a clandestine meeting, Shivaji orchestrated Khan's seizure and subsequent assassination. Promptly apprised of Khan's demise and Abdul Karim's treachery, the Moghul viceroy, Bahadur Khan, received imperial orders to retaliate by launching an attack on Bijapur[4].Gathering his forces near Sholapur, Bahadur Khan engaged Abdul Karim's army in a skirmish along the banks of the Bhima river, resulting in a stalemate with both sides fortifying their positions. Under the cover of darkness, Bijapur forces mounted a surprise assault on the imperial camp, inflicting significant casualties and forcing Bahadur Khan to retreat northward. Bolstered by reinforcements, Bahadur Khan prepared to resume offensive operations.[4] Meanwhile, Diler Khan, a key figure in Bahadur Khan's army and favorably disposed towards Abdul Karim due to shared Afghan heritage, facilitated a truce between the warring factions. Subsequently, a formal offensive and defensive alliance was forged between Bahadur Khan and Abdul Karim, with the objective of subjugating the Golconda state.[4][10]
Hindu ministers of Golconda Madanna and Akkanna supporting Shivaji amidst the absence of strong Muslim leadership. Their effective administration angered Aurangzeb, leading the ministers to align with Shivaji for self-preservation. Simultaneously, Golconda, under the rule of Abu Hussein, experienced internal turmoil following the death of Abdul Kutb Shah. Initially perceived as weak due to his indulgent youth, Abu Hussein surprised Aurangzib by demonstrating astute governance and a resolute stance against Moghul influence.[5][6][7][8][10] This defiance earned Abu Hussein the enmity of Diler Khan and Abdul Karim.[4]Recognizing the potential threat to his own interests, Shivaji resolved to form an alliance with Golconda to safeguard against mutual adversaries. Moreover, he conceived a grander scheme inspired by the history of the Vijayanagar state's valiant resistance against Muslim invaders, envisioning a strategic partnership aimed at confronting the expanding Moghul hegemony.[4][7][8]
Campaign
Amidst the precariousness of Shivaji's rule over his kingdom and the looming threat of Aurangzeb's potential mobilization against him, Shivaji harbored grand ambitions for territorial expansion. While Aurangzeb viewed him as a mere rebellious zamindar, Shivaji foresaw the looming danger of imperial retaliation and the necessity of securing a stronghold in Southern India as a refuge from Moghul forces. To achieve this objective, Shivaji formulated a meticulous plan to establish a new kingdom spanning Southern India from Bednur to Tanjore. Upon securing this domain, he intended to fortify its northern frontier with a network of strongholds, thereby deterring Moghul incursions. Subsequently, he aimed to extend his dominion southward as far as possible, enabling him to maneuver strategically against the armies of Delhi, exploiting the vulnerabilities inherent in their extensive lines of communication.[4]
Crucial to the success of his scheme was the imperative to conceal his intentions from the Moghuls. Hence, Shivaji publicly declared his intention to journey to Tanjore to assert his rightful claim to half of Shahaji's jagir, which encompassed territories such as Bangalore, Kolar, and Noscota in Mysore. Shahaji's coercive tactics had compelled the rulers of Tanjore and Madura to pay tribute, and Vyankoji, Shivaji's brother, had consolidated his control over Tanjore after relocating the capital from Bangalore in 1675.[4][5] Shivaji asserted his entitlement to a portion of Shahaji's inheritance and expressed his readiness to resort to military force if necessary to assert his claims. However, he recognized the imprudence of leaving his kingdom vulnerable to Moghul hostility. Consequently, he negotiated with Bahadur Khan, the Moghul viceroy known for his avarice, to accept tribute on behalf of the emperor and a substantial bribe for himself, thereby temporarily appeasing Moghul aggression.[4] Delegating the administration of his kingdom to trusted lieutenants such as Moro Pingle and Annaji Datto, Shivaji marshaled a formidable force of 70,000 men and boldly traversed Bijapur territory until he reached the borders of the Golconda state. Despite assurances from Bahadur Khan, Shivaji remained wary of revealing his true intentions, thereby laying the groundwork for his audacious expansionist agenda.[4][6][11]
Kopbal seized
Shivaji's expedition in 1677 saw the capture of Kopbal, a fort strategically located between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, held by Afghan captains in the service of Bijapur. The Hindus in the region, oppressed by Muslim rulers, welcomed Shivaji's intervention and sought his protection. Sensing the importance of securing Kopbal for his hold on the Karnatak, Shivaji dispatched strong forces led by Hambir Rao Mohite and Dhanaji Jadhav to subdue the Afghan chiefs. After stiff battles, the Marathas inflicted severe defeats on the Afghans, resulting in the death of Abdul Rahim Khan and the surrender of Husain Khan Miana. With Kopbal secured, Shivaji's march southward continued, marking the beginning of the final phase of his remarkable life.[7][11]
Grand Visit at Haiderabad
Portrait of Abul Hasan Qutb ShahMaddana and Akkana Brahmin Brothers
Upon reaching the Golconda frontier, Shivaji engaged in diplomatic maneuvers to secure an alliance with King Abu Hussein. Leveraging the recent discord between Shahaji's minister, Raghunathpant Hanmante, and Vyankoji, Shivaji sought Hanmante's assistance in conveying his peaceful intentions to Abu Hussein and advocating for an alliance between Golconda and the Marathas.[4][11][5][7]In January 1677, Shivaji journeyed from Raigarh, dispatching armed forces ahead to quell opposition from local Muslim chiefs. His visit to Haidarabad, an unprecedented event, aimed to showcase his goodwill towards the Muslim world. With disciplined followers, carefully selected and trained, Shivaji arrived in February to a warm reception. During his stay, Shivaji held ceremonial visits and frank discussions with the Sultan, culminating in an agreement to jointly resist Mughal advances and share new conquests equally.[8] Shivaji pledged to pay an annual tribute of 6 lakhs of hons to the Sultan as part of the agreement.[5][6][7][11] In a secret treaty, Shivaji and the Sultan of Golconda agreed that Golconda would pay Shivaji a subsidy of 3,000 hun per day . Additionally, Golconda would send 5,000 troops led by Mirza Muhammad Amin to assist Shivaji in conquering the Karnatak region, providing artillery and material support, along with an advance payment of the promised subsidy.[8] In return, Shivaji pledged to grant Golconda territories in the Karnatak not previously owned by his father, Shahji. The alliance was strengthened with Shivaji taking oaths in the presence of the Sultan, who promised to pay an annual tribute of one lakh of hun and host a Maratha ambassador at his court.[6][7][11] Hanmante's influence and fluency in Persian facilitated an audience with Abu Hussein, wherein Shivaji's proposals were favorably received. Negotiations ensued, resulting in the ratification of an offensive and defensive alliance between Shivaji and Abu Hussein. According to the terms, Shivaji pledged to safeguard Golconda against aggression from Bijapur or Delhi, while receiving financial assistance, artillery, and autonomy to confront Bijapur and other Hindu chiefs in the south. With the treaty ratified, Shivaji resumed his campaign, leading his forces southward. Crossing the Krishna River at its confluence with the Tungabhadra, he directed his army towards Cuddapah.[4][6][8][11]
Conquest of territories
During his campaign in Southern India, Shivaji undertook a pilgrimage to the shrine of Shri Mallikarjuna at Parvatam, situated approximately 50 miles downstream along the Krishna River.The temple, renowned for its sacredness, stands atop a hill overlooking the Krishna River. It was here that Shivaji observed a nine-day fast and contemplated offering his life as a sacrifice to the deity. However, influenced by his penance and devotion, Shivaji received a vision of the goddess Bhavani, dissuading him from this extreme act and urging him to continue serving his nation.[4][5]
Hanmante, Shahaji's former minister, advised Shivaji to demonstrate his piety through practical means rather than sacrifice. Thus, Shivaji decided to honor the shrine by funding the construction of accommodations for pilgrims and improving facilities along the Krishna River. Before departing from Parvatam, he made generous donations to the priests, part of which was allocated for the welfare of the poor, while the remainder was invested in infrastructure development.[4][11]
Seizure of Jinji, Siege of Vellore and Battle at Tiruvadi
Following his pilgrimage, Shivaji rejoined his army at Cuddapah and set his sights on Jinji, a fortress northwest of Pondicherry. They swiftly captured the historic fortress of Ginji by mid-May held by Nasir Muhammad Khan,[7][8] followed by Vellore on 23 May 1677, held by Abdullah Khan Habshi.[11] The siege of Vellore lasted over fourteen months, ending on 21 August 1678.[6] Meanwhile, Shivaji continued his march, leaving the siege operations to Anandrao & Narahari Rudra Sabnis with 2,000 horse and 5,000 Mavale infantry. A significant battle occurred at Tiruvadi on 26 June, where the Bijapur army under Sher Khan Lodi was defeated and put to flight. Sher Khan and his son Ibrahim Khan was eventually captured and surrendered on 5 July after being pursued and found lurking in a forest.[4][5][6][7][8][11]
Subsequently, Shivaji besieged Jinji, whose commandant, Ambar Khan and Nasir Muhammad Khan, surrendered the fortress after the fall of Trinomali. The capitulation of Jinji marked a significant victory for Shivaji's expanding empire. While advancing southward, Shivaji dispatched a portion of his forces to capture Vellore, a town on the Palar River. Despite initial resistance from the commandant, Vellore eventually surrendered, further strengthening Shivaji's territorial holdings.[4][12][7][11]
Diplomatic Resolutions and War with Vyankoji
In the midst of his military campaigns, Shivaji addressed familial matters by sending a letter to his brother Vyankoji. In the letter, Shivaji asserted his right to a portion of their father Shahaji's estate, which had been under Vyankoji's control since Shahaji's death. Although Shivaji demanded an equitable resolution, he also expressed a willingness to negotiate an amicable settlement, demonstrating his desire to maintain familial harmony despite asserting his claims.[10][4][7] Vyankoji's position, however, was not without merit, as the estate in question was initially granted to Shahaji by the Bijapur government and subsequently regranted to Vyankoji upon Shahaji's demise.[8] This familial dispute highlighted the complexities of inheritance and territorial claims within the Maratha kingdom. Shivaji's claim to a portion of his father Shahaji's estate, held by his brother Vyankoji, sparked a familial dispute. Shivaji argued that although Shahaji's possessions were technically held in fief by Bijapur, Shahaji operated as an independent ruler, and Shivaji's case had not been properly heard before Vyankoji was granted the estate. Despite efforts to negotiate a compromise, Vyankoji remained steadfast in his position that the estate was his alone, as it was granted to him as a fief.[4][5][6][7][10][11]
Vyankoji Bhosale of Thanjavur Step Brother of Shivaji
In an attempt to resolve the dispute, Vyankoji visited Shivaji's camp at Trivadi, where the two brothers engaged in discussions regarding the inheritance. While Shivaji was willing to compromise, Vyankoji refused to concede, leading to a stalemate. Shivaji dismissed Vyankoji from his camp but reiterated his intention to enforce his claims unless a reasonable compromise was reached.[4][13][7][11] Desperate to defend his rights, Vyankoji sought support from his Musulman soldiers and attempted to ambush a Maratha detachment commanded by Hambirrao Mohite near the Tanjore frontier. However, the ambush failed, resulting in Vyankoji's forces suffering heavy casualties and retreating to Tanjore.[4][5][6][7]
In response to Vyankoji's continued defiance, Shivaji took decisive action by invading all the fiefs inherited by Vyankoji outside Tanjore, including Arni, Kolar, Bangalore, Balapur, and Sira, in 1677. With Vyankoji's garrisons defeated, Shivaji's path to further expansion was clear. Following these victories, Vyankoji's options dwindled, leading him to seek advice from his wife Dipabai. Dipabai recommended that Vyankoji humble himself before Rajaram Hanmante, a former minister, to seek his intercession. Despite initial reluctance from Hanmante, who considered himself Shivaji's servant, Vyankoji persisted, ultimately convincing Hanmante to visit him.[4][6][8]
Upon Hanmante's arrival, Vyankoji demonstrated his humility, hoping to win back Hanmante's favor and seek his assistance in resolving the dispute. Hanmante, moved by Vyankoji's humility, wrote to Shivaji, urging him to forgive his brother and treat him with generosity befitting a king.[4][6][11] Shivaji, recognizing Vyankoji's newfound willingness to reconcile, offered him an alliance. Under the terms of the alliance, Vyankoji would retain Tanjore and receive adjacent lands worth seven lakhs a year, while Shivaji's sister-in-law Dipabai would receive hereditary fiefs in Bangalore and elsewhere. To ensure Vyankoji's loyalty, Shivaji appointed Hanmante as his first minister. With the dispute resolved and an alliance formed, Shivaji turned his attention to further expansion, successfully conquering territories across the Doab region.[7] Despite facing enemies on multiple fronts, Shivaji's strategic prowess and military successes allowed him to extend his empire from sea to sea, establishing a network of fortified strongholds securing his new possessions.[4][6][11] During Shivaji's military campaigns, internal familial and succession issues arose. His son Sambhaji briefly served in the Mughal Empire, possibly due to dissatisfaction with his inheritance prospects. Shivaji proposed splitting the realm between his sons: Rajaram would inherit Maharashtra, while Sambhaji would rule the newly conquered Karnatak and Jinji regions.[12]
Conclusion
With a success as Caesar's in Spain, he came,saw and overcame, and reported so vast a treasure in gold, diamonds, emeralds, rubies and wrought coral, that have strengthened his arms; with very able sinews to prosecute his further victorious designs. Sabhasad estimates the territory annexed by Shivaji in the Karnatak as yielding an annual revenue of 20 lakhs of horn, and including a hundred forts, taken or built by Shivaji. 2S Another English record states that ' Shivajl by his deputies has a full and quiet possession of all these countries about those two castles of Jinji and Vellore, which are worth 22 lakhs of pardoes (or 550 thousand pounds sterling) per annum, in which he has a considerable force of men and horse, 72 strong hills and 14 forts (in the plain), being 60 leagues long and 40 broad.
— An English report dated January 16, 1678, documented the events of that time., [6]
Following Shivaji's death shortly after, his ambitious plans for the extensive Karnatak venture were left unrealized. However, the Karnatak conquests proved immensely beneficial during the reigns of Shivaji's successors, Shambhuji and Rajaram. When Aurangzeb launched campaigns to conquer Maratha lands, Rajaram sought refuge at Gingee, safeguarding the Marathas from Mughal threats.[5] Amidst Shivaji's campaign in the south, the Mughals, particularly Diler Khan and Abdul Karim, expressed discontent with the truce between Shivaji and the Marathas. They viewed the alliance between Shivaji and the Golconda king as a threat to their interests and sought to undermine it. Despite Shivaji's attempts to appease the Mughals with gifts to Bahadur Khan, the Moghul forces remained active.[4]
Diler Khan and Abdul Karim, disapproving of the truce, advocated for an attack on Golconda, Shivaji's ally, believing that its fall would isolate Shivaji and cut off his supplies. With the Golconda king's destruction, they anticipated Shivaji could be overtaken and defeated. Emperor Aurangzeb, persuaded by the arguments of Diler Khan and Abdul Karim and disillusioned with Bahadur Khan's perceived treachery and incompetence, recalled Bahadur Khan to Delhi. In his place, Aurangzeb appointed Diler Khan as the new Moghul viceroy, entrusting him with the task of dealing with Shivaji and securing the empire's interests in the Deccan region. This shift in leadership signaled a more aggressive stance towards Shivaji and his allies in the south.[4]
References
^Sardesai, Govind Sakharam (1946). New History Of The Marathas Vol.1. p. 261. Shivaji's advance into the Karnatak was a great indirect blow ,to the Mughal Emperor's dreams of conquest. While Aurangzeb and Dilir Khan were planning finally to extinguish both Bijapur and Golkonda, Shivaji stepped in and practically seized the southernmost regions.
^Gajanan Bhaskar Mehendale (2011). Shivaji His Life and Times. p. 1030. The conquest of Karnataka, completed almost without bloodshed, was a triumph of Shivaji's grand strategy. Not only did it save the Maratha kingdom from complete extinction by the mighty waves of the Mughal invasion that rolled in from the north, but it also completely shattered them and laid the foundations of the Maratha Empire. It thus decided the fate of India in the next century.
