The Senkaku Islands,[a] also known as the Pinnacle Islands or the Diaoyu Islands[b] in China and as the Tiaoyutai Islands[c] in Taiwan, are a group of uninhabited islands in the East China Sea, administered by Japan.
The islands are the focus of a territorial dispute between Japan and China and between Japan and Taiwan.[9] China claims the discovery and ownership of the islands from the 14th century, while Japan maintained ownership of the islands from 1895 until its surrender at the end of World War II. The United States administered the islands as part of the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands from 1945 until 1972, when the islands returned to Japanese control under the Okinawa Reversion Agreement between the United States and Japan.[10] The discovery of potential undersea oil reserves in 1968 in the area was a catalyst for further interest in the disputed islands.[11][12][13][14][15] Despite the diplomatic stalemate between China and Taiwan, both governments agree that the islands are part of Taiwan as part of Toucheng Township in Yilan County. Japan administers and controls the Senkaku islands as part of the city of Ishigaki in Okinawa Prefecture. It does not acknowledge the claims of China nor Taiwan, but it has not allowed the Ishigaki administration to develop the islands.
As a result of the dispute, the public is largely barred from approaching the uninhabited islands, which are about a seven-hour boat ride from Ishigaki. Vessels from the Japan Coast Guard pursue Chinese ships crossing the maritime boundary in what one visiting journalist described in 2012 as "an almost cold war-style game of cat-and-mouse", and fishing and other civilian boats are prevented from getting too close to avoid a provocative incident.[16]
The islands are referred to as the Senkaku Islands (尖閣諸島, Senkaku-shotō, variants: 尖閣群島Senkaku-guntō[18] and 尖閣列島Senkaku-rettō[19]) in Japanese. In mainland China, they are known as the Diaoyu Islands (Chinese: 钓鱼岛; pinyin: Diàoyúdǎo) or more fully "Diaoyu Dao and its affiliated islands" (Chinese: 钓鱼岛及其附属岛屿; pinyin: Diàoyúdǎo jí qí fùshǔ dǎoyǔ),[20] while in Taiwan they are called the Diaoyutai Islands or Tiaoyutai Islands[21][22][23][24] (Chinese: 釣魚臺列嶼; pinyin: Diàoyútái liè yǔ).[25][26][27][28] In Western sources, the historical English name Pinnacle Islands is occasionally still used when neutrality among the competing national claims is desirable.[29][30][31][32]
In Okinawan (northern Ryukyu), the islands are known as ʔiyukubajima (魚蒲葵島),[33] while their Yaeyama (southern Ryukyu) name is iigunkubajima.
Chinese records of these islands date back to as early as the 15th century when they were referred as Diaoyu in books such as Voyage with a Tail Wind (Chinese: 順風相送; pinyin: Shùnfēng Xiāngsòng) (1403) [34] and Record of the Imperial Envoy's Visit to Ryūkyū (Chinese: 使琉球錄; pinyin: Shǐ Liúqiú Lù) (1534).[citation needed] Adopted by the Chinese Imperial Map of the Ming Dynasty, the Chinese name for the island group (Diaoyu) and the Japanese name for the main island (Uotsuri) both mean "fishing".
Historically, the Chinese had used the uninhabited islands as navigational markers in making the voyage to the Ryukyu Kingdom upon commencement of diplomatic missions to the kingdom, "resetting the compass at a particular isle in order to reach the next one".[35]
The first published description of the islands in Europe appears in a book imported by Isaac Titsingh in 1796. His small library of Japanese books included Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu (三國通覧圖說, An Illustrated Description of Three Countries) by Hayashi Shihei.[36] This text, which was published in Japan in 1785, described the Ryūkyū Kingdom.[37] Hayashi followed convention in giving the islands their Chinese names in his map in the text, where he coloured them in the same pink as China.[38]
The name, "Pinnacle Isles" was first used by James Colnett, who charted them during his 1789–1791 voyage in the Argonaut.[40]William Robert Broughton sailed past them in November 1797 during his voyage of discovery to the North Pacific in HMS Providence, and referred to Diaoyu Island/Uotsuri Island as "Peaks Island".[41] Reference was made to the islands in Edward Belcher's 1848 account of the voyages of HMS Sammarang.[42] Captain Belcher remarked that "the names assigned in this region have been too hastily admitted."[43] Belcher reported anchoring off Pinnacle Island in March 1845.[44]
In the 1870s and 1880s, the English name Pinnacle Islands was used by the British navy for the rocks adjacent to the largest island Uotsuri-shima / Diaoyu Dao (then called 和平嶼; hô-pîng-sū; 'Peace Island in Hokkien'); Kuba-shima / Huangwei Yu (then called Ti-a-usu); and Taishō-tō / Chiwei Yu.[45]
A Japanese navy record issued in 1886 first started to identify the islets using equivalents of the Chinese and English terms employed by the British. The name "Senkaku Retto" is not found in any Japanese historical document before 1900 (the term "Senkaku Gunto" began being used in the late 19th century), and first appeared in print in a geography journal published in 1900. It was derived from a translation of the English name Pinnacle Islands into a Sinicized Japanese term "Sento Shoto" (as opposed to "Senkaku Retto", i.e., the term used by the Japanese today), which has the same meaning.[46]
The collective use of the name "Diaoyutai" to denote the entire group began with the advent of the controversy in the 1970s.[47]
Control of the islands by Japan and the US
Japanese workers at a bonito fishery processing plant on Uotsuri-shima sometime around 1910[48]Map including Uotsuri-Shima (labeled as UOTSURI-SHIMA 魚釣島) (1954)Map including Taishō-tō (labeled as SEKIBI-SHO 赤尾屿) (1954)
As the uninhabited islets were historically used as maritime navigational markers, they were never subjected to administrative control other than the recording of the geographical positions on maps, descriptions in official records of Chinese missions to the Ryukyu Kingdom, etc.[35]
The Japanese central government incorporated the islands into Okinawa Prefecture in January 1895 while still fighting China in the First Sino-Japanese War.[38] Around 1900, Japanese entrepreneur Koga Tatsushirō (古賀 辰四郎) constructed a bonito fish processing plant on the islands, employing over 200 workers. The business failed around 1940 and the islands have remained deserted ever since.[48] In the 1970s, Koga Tatsushirō's son Zenji Koga and Zenji's wife Hanako sold four islets to the Kurihara family of Saitama Prefecture. Kunioki Kurihara[49] owned Uotsuri, Kita-Kojima, and Minami-Kojima. Kunioki's sister owned Kuba.[50]
The islands came under US government occupation in 1945 after the surrender of Japan ended World War II.[48] In 1969, the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) identified potential oil and gas reserves in the vicinity of the Senkaku Islands.[51] In 1971, the Okinawa Reversion Treaty passed the U.S. Senate, returning the islands to Japanese control in 1972.[52] Also in 1972, the Republic of China government and People's Republic of China government officially began to declare ownership of the islands.[53]
Since 1972, when the islands reverted to Japanese government control, the government of Ishigaki has been given civic authority over the territory. The Japanese central government, however, has prohibited Ishigaki from surveying or developing the islands.[48][54]
In 1978, a Japanese political group constructed the first lighthouse on Uotsuri island and grazed two goats. Goats have since proliferated and affected the island's vegetation.[55]
In 1979 an official delegation from the Japanese government composed of 50 academics, government officials from the Foreign and Transport ministries, officials from the now-defunct Okinawa Development Agency, and Hiroyuki Kurihara, visited the islands and camped on Uotsuri for about four weeks. The delegation surveyed the local ecosystem, finding moles and sheep, studied the local marine life, and examined whether the islands would support human habitation.[50]
In 1988, a Japanese political group reconstructed a lighthouse on Uotsuri Island.[56]
In 2005, a Japanese fisherman who owned a lighthouse at Uotsuri Island expressed his intention to relinquish the ownership of the lighthouse, and the lighthouse became a national property pursuant to the provisions of the Civil Code of Japan. Since then, the Japan Coast Guard has maintained and managed the Uotsuri lighthouse.[56]
From 2002 to 2012, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications paid the Kurihara family ¥25 million a year to rent Uotsuri, Minami-Kojima and Kita-Kojima. Japan's Ministry of Defense rents Kuba island for an undisclosed amount. Kuba is used by the U.S. military as a practice aircraft bombing range. Japan's central government completely owns Taisho island.[50][57]
On December 17, 2010, the city of Ishigaki designated January 14 as "Pioneering Day" to commemorate Japan's 1895 incorporation of the Senkaku Islands. China condemned Ishigaki's actions.[60]
In May 2012, both the Tokyo Metropolitan and Japanese central governments announced plans to negotiate purchase of Uotsuri, Kita-Kojima, and Minami-Kojima from the Kurihara family,[50] and on September 11, 2012, the Japanese government nationalized its control over Minami-kojima, Kita-kojima, and Uotsuri islands by purchasing them from the Kurihara family for ¥2.05 billion.[61] China's Foreign Ministry objected saying Beijing would not "sit back and watch its territorial sovereignty violated."[62]
In 2014, Japan constructed a lighthouse and wharf featuring Japanese flag insignia on the islets.[63]
Geography
Map of the Senkaku Islands area (1944)A cluster of islets – Uotsuri-shima (left), Kita-Kojima and Minami-Kojima (right)
The island group are known to consist of five uninhabited islets and three barren rocks.[64] China has identified and named as many as 71 islets that belong to this group after the Japanese Cabinet released names of 39 uninhabited islands.[65][66]
These minor features in the East China Sea are located approximately 120 nautical miles northeast of Taiwan, 200 nautical miles east of the Chinese mainland and 200 nautical miles southwest of the Japanese island of Okinawa.[67]
According to one visitor, Uotsuri-shima, the largest of the islands, consists of a pair of rocky gray mountains with steep, boulder-strewn slopes rising almost straight from the water's edge. Other, nearby islands were described as large rocks covered by low vegetation.[16]
In ascending order of distances, the island cluster is located:
The five islands and three rocks, numbered for the table above.
The depth of the surrounding waters of the continental shelf is approximately 100–150 metres (330–490 ft) except for the Okinawa Trough on the south.[84] The shelf is shallow enough that the western islands were likely connected to the mainland during the Last Glacial Period.[85]
Geology
A geological map of Uotsuri-shima drawn by Japanese geologist Hisashi Kuroiwa in 1900.
Uotsuri, Kitakojima, Minamikojima and surrounding islets are sedimentary in origin, predominantly consisting of probably Miocene aged sandstone and sandstone-conglomerate, with subordinate conglomerate, coal seams up to 10 centimetres thick, and rare siltstone beds. The sedimentary strata have around 300 metres of exposed thickness at Uotsuri, and have SW-NE, EW and NW-SE strikes, with a general inclination of a dip of less than 20 degrees towards the North.[86] These strata are intruded by sheets of Mio-Plioceneporphyritichornblendediorite, and are fringed by recent coral outcrops and surface talus deposits. Kuba and Taisho are volcanic in origin, with Kuba comprising "pyroxeneandesite, lava, volcanic bombs, pumice, limestone, and other rocky material" and Taisho is thought to be consist of "andesite, tuffbreccia, and tuffaceous sandstone".[87]
Wildlife
Plants
Permission for collecting herbs on three of the islands was recorded in an Imperial Chinese edict of 1893.[88]
Uotsuri-shima, the largest island, has a number of endemic species such as the Senkaku mole (Mogera uchidai) and Okinawa-kuro-oo-ari ant. Due to the introduction of domestic goats to the island in 1978, the Senkaku mole is now an endangered species.[94] The striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius) has also been noted to be present on Uotsuri. Surveys from 1900 to 1953 and noted the presence of the Asian house shrew, black rats and fruit bats but these were not noted in more recent surveys.[89][91]
Territorial sovereignty over the islands and the maritime boundaries around them are disputed between the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China, and Japan.
The People's Republic and Republic of China claim that the islands have been a part of Chinese territory since at least 1534. China acknowledges that Japan took control of the islands in 1894–1895 during the first Sino-Japanese War, through the signature of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. China asserts that the Potsdam Declaration required that Japan relinquish control of all islands except for "the islands of Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū, Shikoku and such minor islands as we determine", and China states that this means control of the islands should pass to Republic of China, which was part of China at the time of the first Sino-Japanese War as well as of the San Francisco Peace Treaty. Both the People's Republic of China (PRC)[96] and the Republic of China (ROC)[97] respectively separately claim sovereignty based on arguments that include the following points:
Discovery and early recording in maps and travelogues.[98]
The islands being China's frontier off-shore defence against wokou (Japanese pirates) during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911).
Japan taking control of the islands in 1895 at the same time as the First Sino-Japanese War was happening. Furthermore, correspondence between Foreign Minister Inoue and Interior Minister Yamagata in 1885, warned against the erection of national markers and developing their land to avoid Qing Dynasty suspicions.[98][100][101]
The Potsdam Declaration stating that "Japanese sovereignty shall be limited to the islands of Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū, Shikoku and such minor islands as we determine", and "we" referred to the victors of the Second World War who met at Potsdam and Japan's acceptance of the terms of the Declaration when it surrendered.[100][102][103]
Japan does not accept that there is a dispute, asserting that the islands are an integral part of Japan.[105] Japan has rejected claims that the islands were under China's control prior to 1895, and that these islands were contemplated by the Potsdam Declaration or affected by the San Francisco Peace Treaty.[106]
The Okinawa trough in context of back-arc basins of the world.
China's interpretation of the geography is that
...the Okinawa Trough proves that the continental shelves of China and Japan are not connected, that the Trough serves as the boundary between them, and that the Trough should not be ignored ....[107]
Japan's interpretation of the geography is that
...the trough is just an incidental depression in a continuous continental margin between the two countries ... [and] the trough should be ignored ....[107]
Map including the Senkaku Islands (labeled as SENKAKU-GUNTŌ) and surrounding areas from the International Map of the World (1954)
The stance given by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs is that the Senkaku Islands are clearly an inherent territory of Japan, in light of historical facts and based upon international law, and the Senkaku Islands are under the valid control of Japan. They also state "there exists no issue of territorial sovereignty to be resolved concerning the Senkaku Islands."[108][109] The following points are given:
The islands had been uninhabited and showed no trace of having been under the control of China prior to 1895.[110]
The purposes of maps and the intentions behind their creators can vary significantly, and the mere existence of an ancient map does not substantiate claims of territorial sovereignty. The map (1785) cited by China from Hayashi Shihei does not provide evidence that the creator's coloring was intended to indicate an understanding of territorial sovereignty. This map depicts Taiwan as being only about one-third the size of Okinawa's main island and is colored differently from that of mainland China. This suggests that the creator did not possess accurate knowledge.[111]
The islands were neither part of Taiwan nor part of the Pescadores Islands, which were ceded to Japan by the Qing Dynasty of China in Article II of the May 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki,[110] thus were not renounced by Japan under Article II of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, which serves as the international law addressing the aftermath of WW2.[112]
A resident of Okinawa Prefecture who had been engaging in activities such as fishery around the Senkaku Islands since around 1884 made an application for the lease of the islands, and approval was granted by the Meiji Government in 1896. After this approval, he sent a total of 248 workers to those islands and ran the following businesses: constructing piers,[113] collecting bird feathers, manufacturing dried bonito, collecting coral, raising cattle, manufacturing canned goods and collecting mineral phosphate guano (bird manure for fuel use). The fact that the Meiji Government gave approval concerning the use of the Senkaku Islands to an individual, who in turn was able to openly run these businesses mentioned above based on the approval, demonstrates Japan's valid control over the Islands.[114]
In May 1920, a thank-you letter from the Republic of China's consulate in Nagasaki regarding the rescue of Chinese fishermen in distress near the Senkaku Islands by Japanese fishermen included the notation "Senkaku Islands, Yaeyama District, Okinawa Prefecture, Empire of Japan."[111]
Though the islands were controlled by the United States as an occupying power between 1945 and 1972, Japan has since 1972 exercised administration over the islands.
In 1953, the official Chinese newspaper People's Daily published an article that explicitly stated that the Ryukyu Islands consist of seven island groups, including the Senkaku Islands. Additionally, in the world atlas published by the China Map Press in 1958 (reprinted in 1960), these islands were clearly referred to as the "Senkaku Islands" and considered part of Okinawa.[115]
Republic of China and People Republic of China only started claiming ownership of the islands in 1971, following a May 1969 United Nations report that a large oil and gas reserve may exist under the seabed near the islands.[116][111]
In 2012 the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs created a website in support of its claims;[117] in late 2014 the National Marine Data and Information Service, a department under the State Oceanic Administration of People's Republic of China created a website of its own to support its claims.[118][119] In 2016, Chinese fishing, Coast Guard and other vessels were entering the territorial waters around the islands almost daily and in August 2016 the Japanese foreign minister Fumio Kishida reportedly told China's foreign minister Wang Yi "that the activity represented an escalation of tensions" according to Japanese sources. It was the first meeting of the top diplomats since the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruling against China's South China Sea claims[120][121] and was coincident with a three-party meeting (including South Korea) relative to a North Korean submarine-launched missile in the Sea of Japan.[122]
On 22 June 2020, the Ishigaki City Council voted to change the name of the area containing the Senkaku Islands from "Tonoshiro" to "Tonoshiro Senkaku".[123] Republic of China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded that the islands belong to Republic of China, and any moves to deny this fact are invalid.[124] The Taiwanese government and the opposition KMT party also condemned the council's move, saying the Islands are ROC territory and the nation would not give up even "an inch" of its sovereignty.[125]
In popular culture
Diaoyu Islands: The Truth is a documentary film produced by Chris D. Nebe and J.J. Osbun of Monarex Hollywood Corporation and directed by Chris D. Nebe. Nebe calls on the Japanese Government to cede the islands to China, asserting that Japan has no justifiable claim to the islands, and that the United States of America has turned a blind eye in Japan's favor due to the need of the United States to have a strong ally between it and China. Reception of the film was positive in Chinese media, while the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Correspondents Report called Nebe a 'Chinese propagandist' in 2014.[126]
^地理位置圖. 宜蘭縣頭城鎮公所 Toucheng Township Office (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Archived from the original on July 7, 2019. Retrieved October 19, 2019. 另轄兩小島（龜山島及龜卵嶼）及一群島（釣魚臺列嶼）。
^中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室 (September 25, 2012). 《钓鱼岛是中国的固有领土》白皮书 (in Chinese). 新华社. Archived from the original on September 27, 2012. 1871年......将钓鱼岛列入海防冲要，隶属台湾府噶玛兰厅（今台湾省宜兰县）管辖。
^Lee, Seokwoo (2002). Territorial Disputes among Japan, China and Taiwan concerning the Senkaku Islands (Boundary & Territory Briefing Vol.3 No.7). IBRU. p. 6. ISBN1897643500. The question of the disputed Senkaku Islands remained relatively dormant throughout the 1950s and 1960s, probably because these small uninhabited islands held little interest for the three claimants. The Senkaku Islands issue was not raised until the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (hereinafter 'ECAFE') of the United Nations Economic and Social Council suggested the possible existence of large hydrocarbon deposit in the waters off the Senkaku Islands. ... This development prompted vehement statements and counter-statements among the claimants.
^Pan, Junwu (2009). Toward a New Framework for Peaceful Settlement of China's Territorial and Boundary Disputes. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 140. ISBN978-9004174283. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved October 3, 2020. Obviously, primarily regional interests in oil and gas resources that may lie under the seas drive the two major disputes. The Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands issue did not re-surface until 1969 when the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East of the United Nations Economic and Social Council reported that the continental shelf of the East China "might contain one of the most prolific oil and gas reservoirs of the world, possibly comparing favourably with the Persian Gulf." Then both China and Japan had high expectations that there might be large hydrocarbon deposits in the waters off the Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands. The Law of the Sea at that time emphasized the theory of natural prolongation in determining continental shelf jurisdiction. Ownership of the Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands would permit the owner to a large area of the continental shelf that may have rich sources of gas and oil. Such a dispute is obviously related to the awakening interest by the world's states in developing offshore energy resources to meet the demand of their economies.
^Takamine, Tsukasa (2012). Japan's Development Aid to China, Volume 200: The Long-running Foreign Policy of Engagement. Routledge. p. 129. ISBN978-0415352031. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved October 3, 2020. The islands had temporarily come under American control after the Second World War, but the sovereignty over the islands, was handed over to Japan in 1972 with the reversion of Okinawa．However, the PRC and ROC governments both made a territorial claim to the Senkaku Islands, soon after the United Nation Economic Commission issued in 1969 a report suggesting considerable reserve of submarine oil and gas resources around the islands.
^Drifte, Reinhard (2012). Japan's Security Relations with China Since 1989: From Balancing to Bandwagoning?. Routledge. p. 49. ISBN978-1134406678. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved October 3, 2020. The dispute surfaced with the publication of a seismic survey report under the auspices of the UN Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECSFE) in 1968, which mentioned the possibility of huge oil and gas reserves in the area; this was confirmed by a Japanese report in 1969. Greg Austin mentions that Beijing started its claim to the Senkaku Islands for the first time in 1970, after Japanese government protested to the government in Taiwan about its allocation of oil concessions in the East China Sea, including the area of the Senkaku Islands.
^Lee, Seokwoo (2002). Territorial Disputes among Japan, China and Taiwan concerning the Senkaku Islands (Boundary & Territory Briefing Vol.3 No.7). IBRU. pp. 10–11. ISBN1897643500. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved October 18, 2015. For a long time following the entry into force of the San Francisco Peace Treaty China/Taiwan raised no objection to the fact that the Senkaku Islands were included in the area placed under US administration in accordance with the provisions of Article of the treaty, and USCAP No. 27. In fact, neither China nor Taiwan had taken up the question of sovereignty over the islands until the latter half of 1970 when evidence relating to the existence of oil resources deposited in the East China Sea surfaced. All this clearly indicates that China/Taiwan had not regarded the Senkaku Islands as a part of Taiwan. Thus, for Japan, none of the alleged historical, geographical and geological arguments set forth by China/Taiwan are acceptable as valid under international law to substantiate China's territorial claim over the Senkaku Islands.
^"The ROC government reiterates its sovereignty over the Tiaoyutai Islands". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on November 5, 2020. Retrieved August 10, 2020. According to a report appearing in the Japanese newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun on January 1, 2003, the Japanese government began leasing three uninhabited islands (Kita-kojima, Minami-kojima and Uotsurishima) out of the five islets that comprise the Tiaoyutai Islands (known as the "Senkaku Islands" in Japan) in October 2002 at the rate of 22 million Japanese yen annually. The ROC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs has instructed the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in Japan to ascertain the current position of the Japanese government on this issue and to express the ROC's solemn position regarding its claim to sovereignty over the Tiaoyutai Islands.
^Jesse Johnson (July 27, 2020). "China's 100-day push near Senkaku Islands comes at unsettling time for Sino-Japanese ties". Japan Times. Archived from the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved August 10, 2020. There are few better examples that underscore Japan's complicated relationship with China than the uninhabited but strategically positioned Senkakus, which are also claimed by China, which calls them Diaoyu, as well as Taiwan, which calls them Tiaoyutai.
^Harold C. Hinton (1980). The China Sea: The American Stake in its Future. National Strategy Information Center. p. 13, 14, 25, 26. ISBN0-87855-871-3 – via Internet Archive. The other territorial dispute in the East China Sea is considerably more complicated and more serious. It relates to a group of eight small uninhabited islands known in China as the Tiaoyutai and in Japan as the Senkaku and claimed by Japan and both Chinas; they lie on the edge of the continental shelf about 120 miles northeast of Taiwan.
^What's in a name?Archived July 8, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, BusinessMirror: "The disputed islands East China Sea are called the Senkaku Islands by Japan, Diaoyu Islands in China and the Diaoyutai Islands by the government of Taiwan. In the West, these rocks are called the Pinnacle Islands as a loose translation of the Japanese name."
^Japan's Territorial DisputesArchived July 8, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, American Diplomacy: "The Chinese call them the Diaoyu Islands, and on foreign maps in the past they have been called the Pinnacle Islands."
^Title: Liang zhong hai dao zhen jing / [Xiang Da jiao zhu].Imprint: Beijing : Zhonghua shu ju : Xin hua shu dian Beijing fa xing suo fa xing, 2000 reprint edition. Contents: Shun feng xiang song--Zhi nan zheng fa. (順風相送--指南正法). ISBN7-101-02025-9. pp96 and pp253Archived July 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. The full text is available at wikisourceArchived June 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
^"Pinnacle Rock in Latitude 29°40′ and Longitude 132° E. of London... This Navigation is no ways dangereous were you sure of your Latitude and to make Pinnicle Isle". James Colnett, The Journal ... aboard the Argonaut from April 26, 1789 to Nov. 3, 1791, ed. with introd. and notes by F. W. Howay, Toronto, Champlain Society Vol. 26, 1940, p. 47.
^William Robert Broughton, William Robert Broughton's Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific, 1795–1798, edited by Andrew David; with an introduction by Barry Gough, Ashgate for the Hakluyt Society, Farnham, England; Burlington, VT, 2010, p. 202.
^Belcher, Vol. I, at Google Books; excerpt at p. 317, "On the 16th, we endeavoured to obtain observations on Tia-usu; a landing was effected, but the absence of sun prevented our obtaining satisfactory observations, and bad weather coming on hastened our departure. This group, comprehending hô-pîng-san (和平山, "Peace Island", Uotsuri-shima), Pinnacle Rocks, and Tias-usu (Kuba-shima), form a triangle, of which the hypothenuse, or distance between Hoa-pin-san and Tia-usu, extends about fourteen miles, and that between Hoa-pinsan and the Southern Pinnacle, about two miles."
^Abe, Shinzo (October 15, 2010). "U.S.-Japan Relations". National Cable Satellite Corporation. C-SPAN. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved April 20, 2023.
^"The Senkaku Islands"(PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. March 2014. p. 2. Retrieved October 20, 2019. Kuba Island Taisho Island Okinokitaiwa Island Uotsuri Island Okinominamiiwa Island Tobise Island Kitakojima Island Minamikojima Island
^宜蘭縣土地段名代碼表 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Department of Land Administration. October 31, 2017. Retrieved October 20, 2019. 地政事務所名稱(代碼) 宜蘭(GB) 鄉鎮市區名稱(代碼) 頭城鎮(02){...}段 小段 代碼 備註{...}釣魚台 0568 赤尾嶼 0569 黃尾嶼 0570 北小島 0571{...}南小島 0572
^ ab05-19 臺灣島嶼面積 [Location and Area of Islands in Taiwan]. Ministry of the Interior (in Chinese (Taiwan) and English). Retrieved October 20, 2019. 縣市別 Locality 島嶼名稱 位置 Location 面積(平方公里) (1) 經度 緯度 Name of Islands Longitude Latitude Area (Km2){...}宜蘭縣 Yilan County{...}釣魚臺 Diaoyutai 123°32′48〞～123°30′27〞 25°45′26〞～25°46′31〞 4.3838 黃尾嶼 Huangwei Isle 123°41′56〞～123°41′08〞 25°55′45〞～25°56′21〞 0.9091 赤尾嶼 Chiwei Isle 124°34′09〞～124°33′50〞 25°53′54〞～25°54′06〞 0.0609 北小島 Beixiao Island 123°35′48〞～123°35′15〞 25°44′45〞～25°45′21〞 0.3267 南小島 Nanxiao Island 123°36′29〞～123°35′36〞 25°44′25〞～25°44′47〞 0.4592 沖北岩 Chongbeiyan 123°35′44〞～123°35′26〞 25°48′01〞～25°48′10〞 0.0183 沖南岩 Chongnanyan 123°37′12〞～123°37′05〞 25°46′31〞～25°46′35〞 0.0048 飛瀨 Feilai 123°33′39〞～123°33′32〞 25°45′23〞～25°45′27〞 0.0008
^"Geographic Location". Diaoyu Dao: The Inherent Territory of China. Diaoyu Dao and its Affiliated Islands{...}Diaoyu Dao{...}Huangwei Yu{...}Chiwei Yu{...}Beixiao Dao{...}Nanxiao Dao{...}Bei Yu{...}Nan Yu{...}Fei Yu{...}
^自然环境. 钓鱼岛是中国的固有领土 (in Simplified Chinese). 钓鱼岛及其附属岛屿概况{...}钓鱼岛{...}黄尾屿{...}赤尾屿{...}北小岛{...}南小岛{...}北屿{...}南屿{...}飞屿{...}
^ 臺灣歷史地圖 增訂版 [Taiwan Historical Maps, Expanded and Revised Edition] (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: National Museum of Taiwan History. February 2018. p. 156. ISBN978-986-05-5274-4. 臺海軍事危機地圖1949-1958年{...}釣魚臺{...}地圖繪製:黃清琦 (In the map labeled 臺海軍事危機地圖1949-1958年, the Free area of the Republic of China is colored light green, the PRC (China) is colored red and the Ryukyu Islands are colored pink. The area labeled 釣魚臺 is colored light green. The map was created by Ching-Chi Huang.)
^People's Daily, Beijing, China, 31 December 1971, Page 1, "An Declaration of The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, 1971-12-30" [verification needed]
Belcher, Edward and Arthur Adams. (1848). Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Samarang, During the Years 1843–46: Employed Surveying the Islands of the Eastern Archipelago. London : Reeve, Benham, and Reeve. OCLC 192154Archived May 7, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
Jarrad, Frederick W. (1873). The China Sea Directory, Vol. IV. Comprising the Coasts of Korea, Russian Tartary, the Japan Islands, Gulfs of Tartary and Amúr, and the Sea of Okhotsk. London: Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. OCLC 557221949
Lai, Yew Meng (2013), Nationalism and Power Politics in Japan's Relations with China: A Neoclassical Realist Interpretation, Routledge, p. 208, ISBN978-1-136-22977-0
Suganuma, Unryu. (2000). Sovereign Rights and Territorial Space in Sino-Japanese Relations. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-2159-3; OCLC 170955369
Valencia, Mark J. (2001). Maritime Regime Building: Lessons Learned and Their Relevance for Northeast Asia. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN9789041115805; OCLC 174100966
O'Hanlon, Michael E. The Senkaku Paradox: Risking Great Power War Over Small Stakes (Brookings Institution, 2019) online reviewArchived February 17, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
Sunohara, Tsuyoshi. Fencing in the Dark: Japan, China, and the Senkakus (Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture, 2020) [3]Archived March 7, 2023, at the Wayback Machine
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