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The Sfire or Sefire steles are three 8th-century BCE basalt stelae containing Aramaic inscriptions discovered near Al-Safirah ("Sfire") near Aleppo, Syria.^[1] The Sefire treaty inscriptions are the three inscriptions on the steles; they are known as KAI 222-224.^[2] A fourth stele, possibly from Sfire, is known as KAI 227 (the "Starcky Tablet", at the Louvre).^[3]

Discovery of the inscriptions

Sefire I

Discovered in 1930, it is held in the National Museum of Damascus. This is a basalt slab broken in two horizontally. The first two steles each have three faces bearing writing.

Sefire II

Discovered in 1930, it is held in the National Museum of Damascus. As with Sefire I stele, Sefire II had three faces bearing writing. While most of the text of Sefire II A and B permit coherent translation only with comparison with Sefire I and III, the concluding portion of Sefire II A and B is quite clear.^[4]^[5]^[6]

Sefire III

Discovered in 1956, Sefire III is made up of nine fragments of the reverse of a broad slab. It is held by the Beirut National Museum.

The inscriptions

The inscriptions record two treaties that "list curses and magical rites which take effect if the treaty is violated."^[7]

One is a treaty between two minor kings, Barga'yah and Matti'el, who hailed from the southwestern periphery of the Assyrian empire.^[8] In the text, Matti'el swears to accept dire consequences for himself and his cities should he violate the stipulations of the treaty:^[8]

"....
As this wax is consumed by fire, thus Ma[tti'el] shall be consumed b[y fi]re.
As this bow and these arrows are broken, thus Inurta and Hadad (= names of local deities) shall break [the bow of Matti'el] and the bows of his nobles.
As a man of wax is blinded, thus Matti'el shall be blinded.
[As] this calf is cut up, thus Matti'el and his nobles shall be cut up."^[8]

This loyalty oath from the Sefire inscriptions is similar to other loyalty oaths imposed by Assyrian kings on other less powerful monarchs in the Levant throughout the 8th and 7th centuries BCE.^[8]

The inscriptions may, under one possible interpretation, record the names of El and Elyon, "God, God Most High" possibly providing prima facie evidence for a distinction between the two deities first worshipped by the Jebusites in Jerusalem, and then elsewhere throughout the ancient Levant.^[9]

Thought to be reflective of Assyrian or neo-Assyrian culture and similar to other documents dating from the first millennium BCE, scholars such as Joseph Fitzmyer have perceived Canaanite influences in the text, while Dennis McCarthy has noted similarities to second millennium BCE treaties imposed by Hittite kings on Syrian vassals.^[10]

Identification of the treaty kings

Two treaties conducted between minor kings from the Kingdom of Arpad inscribed on the stelae are often cited as evidence of the Aramaean tradition of treaty-making.^[11] The Sefire inscriptions are of interest to those studying beliefs and practices in ancient Syria and Palestine and the text is considered notable for constituting "the best extrabiblical source for West Semitic traditions of covenantal blessings and curses."^[1]

They tell of "The treaty of King Bar-ga'yah of K[a]t[a]k, with Mati'el son of Attarsamak, king of Arpad." Some have identified this as the treaty of "Ashurnerari V" (Adad-nirari III or his son Tiglath-pileser III?) of Assyria and Matiilu (unknown) of Arpad (probably modern Tel Rifaat, Syria).^[12]

Gallery

KAI 227, "Starcky Tablet", AO 21063

References

^ ^a ^b Kaufman, Stephen A. (1992). "Languages (Aramaic)" (PDF). In Freedman, David Noel; et al. (eds.). Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 4/IV: K-N (First ed.). Doubleday, Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group. pp. 173-178 [note that the PDF pagination doesn't match the book pagination]. ISBN 0-385-19362-9. LCCN 91-8385. OCLC 23145434. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 4, 2005.
^ Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (1995). "Bibliography". The Aramaic Inscriptions of Sefire. Biblica et Orientalia. Vol. 19/A (Second/Revised ed.). Roma, Italia: Editrice Pontifico Istituto Biblico / St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-88-7653-347-1.
^ Starcky, Jean (1960). "Une tablette araméenne de l'an 34 de Nabuchodonosor.(AO 21. 063)". Syria. Archéologie, Art et histoire. 37 (1–2): 99–115. doi:10.3406/syria.1960.5506.
^ Rosenthal, Franz (1969). "Canaanite and Aramaic Inscriptions: Political Documents, The Treaty Between KTK and ARPAD". In Pritchard, James Bennett (ed.). The Ancient Near East: Supplementary Texts and Pictures Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 224 [660]. LCCN 78-76500. OCLC 54930. In Sfire II A 9, lions seem to be mentioned in the same context, offering a good parallel to [...] / (Sfire II C) (While most of the preserved text of Sfire II A and B permits a coherent translation only where the missing links can be supplied on the basis of Sfire I and III, the concluding portion is quite clear.)
^ Folmer, Margaretha L. (2008). "The Use and Form of the nota objecti in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic Inscriptions". Written at Wiesbaden. In Gzella, Holger; Folmer, Margaretha L. (eds.). Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting. Veröffentlichungen der Orientalischen Kommission. Vol. 50. Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur. Mainz: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 153. ISBN 978-3-447-05787-5. ISSN 0568-4447. personal names: Sfire II, C, 14; place names: Zkr B:10, 11 and perhaps B 4; Sfire II, C, 5;
^ Folmer, M. L. (1995). "Chapter IV, Morpho-syntactic and syntactic studies; 4.10, The independent pronoun pl.3m. hmw functioning as the direct object of a finite verb form". The Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period: A Study in Linguistic Variation. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. Vol. 68. Leuven, Belgium: Uitgeverij Peeters en Department Oosterse Studies [Peeters Press & Department of Oriental Studies]. p. 427. ISBN 978-90-6831-740-4. D. 1995/0602/88. ⁶³⁸ In combination with the infinitive (hbzthm Sfire ii B 7)
^ Jeffers, Ann (1996). "Chapter One. Prolegomena. A Search for Definitions and Methodology: 4. Methodology". Magic and Divination in Ancient Palestine and Syria. Studies in the history and culture of the ancient Near East. Vol. VIII/8. Leiden / New York / Köln: E. J. Brill. p. 18. ISBN 90-04-10513-1. ISSN 0169-9024. LCCN 95-49418.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Faraone, Christopher A. (November 1993). "Molten Wax, Spilt Wine and Mutilated Animals: Sympathetic Magic in near Eastern and Early Greek Oath Ceremonies". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 113. The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies: 60–80. doi:10.2307/632398. JSTOR 632398. S2CID 161331440. Archived from the original on 2022-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-12.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
^ Day, John (2002). "Chapter 1: Yahweh and El". Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series. Vol. 265. Sheffield Academic Press, Continuum International. p. 21. ISBN 0-82646-830-6.
^ Morrow, William (2001). "The Sefire Treaty Stipulations and the Mesopotamian Treaty Tradition". In Michèle Daviau, P.M.; Wevers, John W.; Weigl, Michael (eds.). The World of the Aramaeans III: Studies in Language and Literature in Honour of Paul-Eugène Dion. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series. Vol. 326. Sheffield Academic Press, Continuum International. pp. 83–84. ISBN 1-84127-179-9.
^ John F. Healy (13 June 1987). "Ancient Aramaic Culture and the Bible" (PDF). University of Durham. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 28, 2008. Retrieved 2007-10-12.
^ Grosby, Steven Elliott (2002). "Chapter 5: Borders, Territory, and Nationality in the Ancient Near East and Armenia". Biblical Ideas of Nationality: Ancient and Modern. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. p. 126. ISBN 9781575060651. LCCN 2002009253. Thus, they think that the Sefire treaty is the Aramaic version of the treaty of approximately 754 bc between Ashurnerari V and Matîoil of Arpad. But why the use of KTK as a pseudonym for Assyria? If, in fact, Dupont-Sommer's (1958) ...

Bibliography

Steles I and II

Dussaud René. Nouvelles inscriptions araméennes de Séfiré, près d'Alep. In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 75ᵉ année, N. 4, 1931. pp. 312-321. DOI : https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.1931.76102
Ronzevalle, S., "Fragments d'inscriptions araméennes des environs d'Alep." Mélanges de l'Université Saint-Joseph, 15 (1930-31): 237–60
Cantineau, Jean, "Remarques sur la stèle araméenne de Sefiré-Soudjin." RA 28 (1931): 167–178
Hempel, J. and Bauer, H., "Zeitschriftenschau: Mélanges de l'Université Saint-Joseph. Beyrouth (Liban) XV (1930)." ZAW 50 (1932): 178–83
Driver, G.R., "Notes on the Aramaic Inscription from Soudschin." AfO 8 (1932-33): 203–6
Friedrich, J. and Landsberger, B., "Zu der altaramäischen Stele von Sudschin." ZA 41 (1933): 313–18

Stele III

Dupont-Sommer, A. and Starcky, Jean, "Une inscription araméenne inédite de Sfiré." BMB 13 (1956 [appeared 1958]): 23–41 + pls. I-VI. Sf.3
Dupont-Sommer, A., "Une stèle araméenne inédite de Sfiré (Syrie) du VIIIe siècle avant J.-C.." CRAIBL (1957a): 245–48. Sf.3
Fitzmyer, Joseph A., "The Aramaic Suzerainty Treaty from Sefire in the Museum of Beirut." CBQ 20 (1958): 444–76. Sf.3

All Steles

Dupont-Sommer André. Les inscriptions araméennes de Sfiré (stèles I et II). In: Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres de l'Institut de France. Première série, Sujets divers d'érudition. Tome 15, 1e partie, 1960. pp. 197-349. DOI : https://doi.org/10.3406/mesav.1960.1129
Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (1967). The Aramaic Inscriptions of Sefîre. Biblica et Orientalia (sacra scriptura antiquitatibus orientalibus illustrata). Vol. 19. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute. OCLC 467201.
Fitzmyer, J. (1961). The Aramaic Inscriptions of Sefire I and II. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 81(3), 178-222. doi:10.2307/595652
Greenfield, Jonas C., "Three Notes on the Sefire Inscription," JSS 11 (1966), 98-105.