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Tall-stilt mangrove
	Flower
Conservation status
	; Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Rosids
Order:	Malpighiales
Family:	Rhizophoraceae
Genus:	Rhizophora
Species:	R. apiculata
Binomial name
	Rhizophora apiculata; Blume

The tall-stilt mangrove (Rhizophora apiculata) belongs to the Plantae kingdom under the Rhizophoraceae family. R. apiculata is distributed throughout Southeast Asia and the western Pacific islands.

It is located exclusively in the mangrove ecosystem due to an affinity to wet, muddy and silty sediments. Due to the high salt concentrations of the soils in these environments, it has mechanisms (ultrafiltration) in place to reduce the likely impacts associated with increased salt in plant physiology (drying plant material down causing increased evapotranspiration). Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata are used to make charcoal in the charcoal kilns of Kuala Sepetang in Perak, Malaysia. Rhizophora apiculata is used within mangrove plantation specifically for wood, and charcoal production in many parts of Thailand.^[2]

There are alternative uses for R. apiculata, such as to reinforce nets, ropes and fishing lines, transform into charcoal or trade for income.

Description

Rhizophora apiculata belongs to the Plantae kingdom under the Rhizophoraceae family. The shrub size depends on geographical factors (climate and soil specifically). On average a mature R. apiculata shrub reaches between 5–8 metres in height although it has the potential to reach up to 30–40 metres.^[3]

Trunk

The dimensions of the trunk depend on the age of the plant. When mature the diameter reach 50 cm, and is typically dark grey.^[4] The trunk size is highly dependent on the nutrients within the soil as they will be the underlying factor for growth since water is not usually a limiting factor in its habitats.

Leaves

The openings established by the cork warts enable a pathway for air to be trapped within the aerenchyma that is then stored. The air after being stored is heated by the sun causing the air to expand and enlarge the leaf. Aerenchyma in plants are integral for growth and functionality alongside enabling roots to function in 'oxygen deprived' (anoxic) substrates.^[5]

Due to the differences in morphology between R. apiculata with vs. without cork warts an added effect can be seen contributing to a reduced amount of light intake as the cross section for chlorophyll will be limited as a result. This will overall limit the growth potential between R. apiculata with vs. without cork warts as if environmental were controlled a reduction in growth potential will occur.^[6]

These were originally thought to be exclusive to R. apiculata however R. racemosa have also shown this same trait develop.^[3] The distribution of R. apiculata plays a role in whether this adaptation will be present or not with regions north and west of the New Guinea coast having this trait present whereby south and east of the New Guinea coast don't have this trait.^[3] The presence of this adaptation is directly related to the environment in which its located as anoxic substrates will likely have this characteristic due to it being favourable to survivability.

Roots

R. apiculata also has two types of adventitious roots; aerial prop roots and stilt roots. Both types of roots are an adaptation undertaken due to environmental factors, designed to withstand/resist; large waves, rough tides, strong winds and tropical storms.^[7] Roots also have two main forces that govern the amount of water uptake potential. These include hydrostatic (which distributes the water taken up by the root to each of its organs) and osmotic force (uses negative water pressure in the roots to suck up water from the soil).^[8]

Aerial prop roots

Due to the habitat in which R. apiculata occurs, the roots possess a special trait designed to anchor the plant to the soil.^[4]^[9] It still acts as a normal root through in-taking both water and nutrients with the only difference being it descends from the branches. Aerial roots anchor the plant to the soil in this case due to the soil being heavily saturated with water, movement of the plant without aerial prop roots will lead to the plant being uprooted (separation from the soil leading to plant death).^[9]

Stilt roots

Stilt roots are lateral roots that originate from the base of the stem downwards into the substrate. Another very common type of root possessed by R. apiculata is stilt roots that act as an additional support and anchor.^[10] The location of the R. apiculata will determine the type of effect placed onto the stilt root for instance; if the stilt root grows downward and finds water then it will continuously grow downwards until soil from the ocean floor or it meets a substrate it can grow around. If the stilt root reaches soil first it will grow underground expanding the root system then grows additional stilt roots from the original that grew unilaterally upwards.^[11] This process is necessary for the plant to increase carbon sequestration alongside providing additional stability from being uprooted. Including R. apiculata there are a variety of mangrove plants that possess stilt roots for instance R. mucronata, and R. stylosa.^[11]

Ultra-filtration

The process of roots absorbing both water and nutrients is a fundamental process responsible for growth, however due to the environment in which R. apiculata grows being notably high in salt levels.^[3] The roots undergo a process called ultra-filtration to eliminate any salt from entering the plant however any salt taken up will be stored in old leaves that will eventually fall and die eliminating the salt capacity within the plant.

Distribution and habitat

Habitat

R. apiculata is found within the mangrove ecosystem; a unique and complex location known for its humid climate, saline environment, waterlogged soils and capable of tolerating salinity ranging from 2-90%.^[12]

Soil

The habitat of R. apiculata is the mangroves for which there are common similarities among all mangroves around the world. These include; saline, anoxic, acidic and frequently waterlogged conditions for which the majority of nutrients are brought in via tidal inundation (the use of waves and water movement to move sediments thus supplying nutrients).^[13] As R. apiculata occurs over a variety of locations a detailed summary of the soil composition is unobtainable as they are ever changing and vary based on location.

Environmental impacts

There is currently a positive correlation between R. apiculata and improving water quality through "filtration, adsorption, co-sedimentation, absorption, and microbial decomposition".^[14] As a result of water quality improvement, the likelihood of diseases caused by bacteria, parasites, fungi, and environmental pressure impacting both flora and fauna will be reduced. Microbiota may reduce the numbers of mud crab exponentially which are a key driver within the mangrove ecosystem.^[14]

Biodiversity impacts

This impacts the aquatic animals positively as Dai et al. (2020) deduced that R. apiculata is able to change the composition of mud crab gut microbiota.^[14] This change will lead to the mud crab living longer and healthier with an added effect being on the crustacean's weight. This idea revolves around microbiota in which due to R. apiculata positively influencing this it will in turn positively influences the marine life in which it resides.^[14]^[15]

Distribution

The distribution of mangroves are directly linked with the distribution of R. apiculata, whereby it is primarily located on the equator in tropical landscapes including tropical Asia, Pakistan, Vietnam, Hainan, Malaysia and Northern Australia.^[3] As noted within the physiology associated with R. apiculata the distribution will be closely linked to the favored characteristics of this plant to its environment.

Seed dispersal

R. apiculata undertakes reproduction through two methods; viviparity and wind dispersal. Viviparity occurs when the embryo grows through the seed coat whilst still attached to the plant prior to dropping into the water.^[16]^[17] Once dropped into water it will travel and if a suitable site for germination occurs it will establish itself. The other method for reproduction occurs as flowers are self-compatible and usually wind pollinated.^[17]

Commercial uses

R. apiculata has a wide range of commercial uses due to its availability and quality of timber. Currently there are plantations preexisting that allow for R. apiculata to be farmed and transformed into charcoal; resulting in renewable energy alongside potential income sources.^[18]

Rare hybrid

When bred with 'bakauan bato' (Rhizophora stylosa), the product is a rare hybrid species of mangrove, called "Rhizophora x lamarckii", which was discovered in April 2008, by Filipino scientists in Masinloc, Zambales. Only one tree was found on Panay Island in Western Visayas, while 12 were discovered in Masinloc, and they have an average diameter of 5.5 centimeters and height of 6 meters.^[19]

In the Maldives, Rhizophora apiculata is commonly mistaken by locals with Rhizophora mangle. This species of plant is only found in Huraa island of Kaafu Atoll.^{[citation needed]}

References

^ Duke, N.; Kathiresan, K.; Salmo III, S.G.; Fernando, E.S.; Peras, J.R.; Sukardjo, S.; Miyagi, T. (2010). "Rhizophora apiculata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2010: e.T31382A9623321. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-2.RLTS.T31382A9623321.en. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
^ Hassan; et al. (2018). "Management Practices and Aboveground Biomass Production Patterns of Rhizophora apiculata Plantation: Study from a Mangrove Area in Samut Songkram Province, Thailand". BioResources. 13 (4): 7826–7850. doi:10.15376/biores.13.4.7826-7850.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Duke, Norman C. (2006), Elevitch, Craig R. (ed.), "Indo-West Pacific stilt mangroves: Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, R. stylosa, R. X annamalai, R. X lamarckii" (PDF), Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands: their culture, environment, and use, Holualoa, Hawaii: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), pp. 641–660, ISBN 978-0-9702544-5-0, retrieved 17 May 2021
^ ^a ^b "Rhizophora apiculata Blume". www.nparks.gov.sg. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
^ DeYoe, Hudson; Lonard, Robert I.; Judd, Frank W.; Stalter, Richard; Feller, Ilka (March 2020). "Biological Flora of the Tropical and Subtropical Intertidal Zone: Literature Review for Rhizophora mangle L." Journal of Coastal Research. 36 (4): 857–884. doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-19-00088.1. ISSN 0749-0208. S2CID 216143703.
^ Evans, Lance S.; Bromberg, Alison (2010). "Characterization of cork warts and aerenchyma in leaves of Rhizophova mangle and Rhizophora racemosa". The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 137 (1): 30–38. doi:10.3159/09-RA-024.1. ISSN 1095-5674. JSTOR 40864968. S2CID 86706458.
^ Alappatt, Joju P. (1 January 2008). "Structure and Species Diversity of Mangrove Ecosystem". Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands: 127–144. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-813064-3.00005-3. ISBN 9780128130643.
^ Aroca, Ricardo; Porcel, Rosa; Ruiz-Lozano, Juan Manuel (1 January 2012). "Regulation of root water uptake under abiotic stress conditions". Journal of Experimental Botany. 63 (1): 43–57. doi:10.1093/jxb/err266. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 21914658.
^ ^a ^b "Difference Between Prop Root and Stilt Root". Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms. 19 May 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
^ "Difference Between Prop Root and Stilt Root". Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms. 19 May 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
^ ^a ^b Alappatt, Joju P. (1 January 2008). "Structure and Species Diversity of Mangrove Ecosystem". Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands: 127–144. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-813064-3.00005-3. ISBN 9780128130643.
^ Singh, Jitendra Kumar (1 August 2020). "Structural characteristics of mangrove forest in different coastal habitats of Gulf of Khambhat arid region of Gujarat, west coast of India". Heliyon. 6 (8): e04685. Bibcode:2020Heliy...604685S. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04685. ISSN 2405-8440. PMC 7426573. PMID 32817898.
^ Aroca, R.; Porcel, R.; Ruiz-Lozano, J. M. (13 September 2011). "Regulation of root water uptake under abiotic stress conditions". Journal of Experimental Botany. 63 (1): 43–57. doi:10.1093/jxb/err266. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 21914658.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Dai, Wenfang; Xiong, Jinbo; Zheng, Hao; Ni, Sui; Ye, Yangfang; Wang, Chunlin (9 June 2020). "Effect of Rhizophora apiculata plantation for improving water quality, growth, and health of mud crab". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 104 (15): 6813–6824. doi:10.1007/s00253-020-10716-7. ISSN 0175-7598. PMID 32514755. S2CID 219543803.
^ Wang, Huan; Tang, Lei; Wei, Hongling; Lu, Junkai; Mu, Changkao; Wang, Chunlin (31 May 2018). "Transcriptomic analysis of adaptive mechanisms in response to sudden salinity drop in the mud crab, Scylla paramamosain". BMC Genomics. 19 (1): 421. doi:10.1186/s12864-018-4803-x. ISSN 1471-2164. PMC 5984308. PMID 29855258.
^ Alappatt, Joju P. (1 January 2008). "Structure and Species Diversity of Mangrove Ecosystem". Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands: 127–144. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-813064-3.00005-3. ISBN 9780128130643.
^ ^a ^b Schowalter, Timothy D. (2011). Insect Ecology. pp. 397–420.
^ Thongjoo, Chaisit; Choosak, Sarunya; Chaichana, Ratcha (2018). Tropical Ecology; Soil fertility improvement from commercial monospecific mangrove forests (Rhizophora apiculata) at Yeesarn Village, Samut Songkram Province, Thailand. pp. 59(1), pp.91–97.
^ Inquirer.net, Scientists find rare species of mangrove Archived 2008-04-30 at the Wayback Machine

External links

"Rhizophora apiculata Blume". Atlas of Living Australia.

[iucn_status_14_November_2021-1] Duke, N.; Kathiresan, K.; Salmo III, S.G.; Fernando, E.S.; Peras, J.R.; Sukardjo, S.; Miyagi, T. (2010). "Rhizophora apiculata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2010: e.T31382A9623321. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-2.RLTS.T31382A9623321.en. Retrieved 14 November 2021.

[2] Hassan; et al. (2018). "Management Practices and Aboveground Biomass Production Patterns of Rhizophora apiculata Plantation: Study from a Mangrove Area in Samut Songkram Province, Thailand". BioResources. 13 (4): 7826–7850. doi:10.15376/biores.13.4.7826-7850.

[:0-3] Duke, Norman C. (2006), Elevitch, Craig R. (ed.), "Indo-West Pacific stilt mangroves: Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, R. stylosa, R. X annamalai, R. X lamarckii" (PDF), Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands: their culture, environment, and use, Holualoa, Hawaii: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), pp. 641–660, ISBN 978-0-9702544-5-0, retrieved 17 May 2021

[:2-4] "Rhizophora apiculata Blume". www.nparks.gov.sg. Retrieved 27 May 2021.

[5] DeYoe, Hudson; Lonard, Robert I.; Judd, Frank W.; Stalter, Richard; Feller, Ilka (March 2020). "Biological Flora of the Tropical and Subtropical Intertidal Zone: Literature Review for Rhizophora mangle L." Journal of Coastal Research. 36 (4): 857–884. doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-19-00088.1. ISSN 0749-0208. S2CID 216143703.

[6] Evans, Lance S.; Bromberg, Alison (2010). "Characterization of cork warts and aerenchyma in leaves of Rhizophova mangle and Rhizophora racemosa". The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 137 (1): 30–38. doi:10.3159/09-RA-024.1. ISSN 1095-5674. JSTOR 40864968. S2CID 86706458.

[7] Alappatt, Joju P. (1 January 2008). "Structure and Species Diversity of Mangrove Ecosystem". Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands: 127–144. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-813064-3.00005-3. ISBN 9780128130643.

[8] Aroca, Ricardo; Porcel, Rosa; Ruiz-Lozano, Juan Manuel (1 January 2012). "Regulation of root water uptake under abiotic stress conditions". Journal of Experimental Botany. 63 (1): 43–57. doi:10.1093/jxb/err266. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 21914658.

[:3-9] "Difference Between Prop Root and Stilt Root". Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms. 19 May 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2021.

[10] "Difference Between Prop Root and Stilt Root". Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms. 19 May 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2021.

[:4-11] Alappatt, Joju P. (1 January 2008). "Structure and Species Diversity of Mangrove Ecosystem". Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands: 127–144. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-813064-3.00005-3. ISBN 9780128130643.

[12] Singh, Jitendra Kumar (1 August 2020). "Structural characteristics of mangrove forest in different coastal habitats of Gulf of Khambhat arid region of Gujarat, west coast of India". Heliyon. 6 (8): e04685. Bibcode:2020Heliy...604685S. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04685. ISSN 2405-8440. PMC 7426573. PMID 32817898.

[13] Aroca, R.; Porcel, R.; Ruiz-Lozano, J. M. (13 September 2011). "Regulation of root water uptake under abiotic stress conditions". Journal of Experimental Botany. 63 (1): 43–57. doi:10.1093/jxb/err266. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 21914658.

[:5-14] Dai, Wenfang; Xiong, Jinbo; Zheng, Hao; Ni, Sui; Ye, Yangfang; Wang, Chunlin (9 June 2020). "Effect of Rhizophora apiculata plantation for improving water quality, growth, and health of mud crab". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 104 (15): 6813–6824. doi:10.1007/s00253-020-10716-7. ISSN 0175-7598. PMID 32514755. S2CID 219543803.

[15] Wang, Huan; Tang, Lei; Wei, Hongling; Lu, Junkai; Mu, Changkao; Wang, Chunlin (31 May 2018). "Transcriptomic analysis of adaptive mechanisms in response to sudden salinity drop in the mud crab, Scylla paramamosain". BMC Genomics. 19 (1): 421. doi:10.1186/s12864-018-4803-x. ISSN 1471-2164. PMC 5984308. PMID 29855258.

[16] Alappatt, Joju P. (1 January 2008). "Structure and Species Diversity of Mangrove Ecosystem". Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands: 127–144. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-813064-3.00005-3. ISBN 9780128130643.

[:1-17] Schowalter, Timothy D. (2011). Insect Ecology. pp. 397–420.

[18] Thongjoo, Chaisit; Choosak, Sarunya; Chaichana, Ratcha (2018). Tropical Ecology; Soil fertility improvement from commercial monospecific mangrove forests (Rhizophora apiculata) at Yeesarn Village, Samut Songkram Province, Thailand. pp. 59(1), pp.91–97.

[19] Inquirer.net, Scientists find rare species of mangrove Archived 2008-04-30 at the Wayback Machine

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Rhizophora apiculata