Procurement is the process of locating and agreeing to terms and purchasing goods, services, or other works from an external source, often with the use of a tendering or competitive bidding process.[1] The term may also refer to a contractual obligation to "procure", i.e. to "ensure" that something is done. When a government agency buys goods or services through this practice, it is referred to as government procurement or public procurement.[2]
Procurement as an organizational process is intended to ensure that the buyer receives goods, services, or works at the best possible price when aspects such as quality, quantity, time, and location are compared.[3] Corporations and public bodies often define processes intended to promote fair and open competition for their business while minimizing risks such as exposure to fraud and collusion.
Almost all purchasing decisions include factors such as delivery and handling, marginal benefit, and fluctuations in the prices of goods. Organisations which have adopted a corporate social responsibility perspective are also likely to require their purchasing activity to take wider societal and ethical considerations into account.[4] On the other hand, the introduction of external regulations concerning accounting practices can affect ongoing buyer-supplier relations in unforeseen manners.[5]
The Institute for Supply Management (ISM) defines procurement as an organizational function that includes specification development, value analysis, supplier market research, negotiation, buying activities, contract administration, inventory control, traffic, receiving and stores. Federal US legislation defines procurement as including
all stages of the process of acquiring property or services, beginning with the process for determining a need for property or services and ending with contract completion and closeout.[6]
Purchasing is a subset of procurement that specifically deals with the ordering and payment of goods and services. Organizational procurement is also referred to as "organizational buying" or "institutional buying", for example in studies of the buying behaviour of staff involved in purchasing decision-making.[7]
Procurement activities are also often divided into two distinct categories, direct and indirect spend. Direct spend refers to the production-related procurement that encompasses all items that are part of finished products, such as raw materials, components and parts. Direct procurement, which is the focus in supply chain management, directly affects the production process of manufacturing firms. In contrast, indirect procurement concerns non-production-related acquisition: a wide variety of goods and services, from standardized items like office supplies and safety equipment to complex and costly products and services like heavy equipment, consulting services, and outsourcing services.[8][9]
Formalized acquisition of goods and services has its roots in military logistics. The Romans developed a system of supply depots that were located throughout their empire. These depots were stocked with food, weapons, and other supplies that could be quickly distributed to troops in the field. This system helped to ensure that the Roman army was always well-supplied, even when it was fighting far from home. [10]
The first record of what would be recognized now as the purchasing department of an industrial operation relate to the railway companies of the 19th century:
"The intelligence and fidelity exercised in the purchase, care and use of railway supplies influences directly the cost of construction and operating and affect the reputations of officers and the profits of owners."[11]
An early reference book from 1922 explains that
"The modern purchasing agent is a more important man by far than he was in older days when purchasing agents were likely to be rubber stamps or bargainers for an extra penny. A Purchasing agent of the modern breed is a creative thinker and planner and now regards his work as a profession."[12]
Procurement is one component of the broader concept of sourcing and acquisition. Typically procurement is viewed as more tactical in nature (the process of physically buying a product or service) and sourcing and acquisition are viewed as more strategic and encompassing.[citation needed] Multiple sourcing business models and acquisition models exist.
The Institute for Supply Management (ISM) defines strategic sourcing as the process of identifying sources that could provide needed products or services for the acquiring organization.[citation needed] The term procurement is used to reflect the entire purchasing process or cycle, and not just the tactical components.
Procurement software (often labeled as e-procurement software) manages purchasing processes electronically or via cloud computing.
Some aspects of a procurement process may need to be initiated ahead of the majority of the project, for example where there are extensive lead times. Such cases may be referred to as "advance procurement".[13][14]
Many writers also refer to procurement as a cyclical process, which commences with a definition of business needs and develops a specification, identifies suppliers and adopted appropriate methods for consulting with them, inviting and evaluating proposals, secures on contract and takes delivery of a new asset or accepts performance of a service, manages the ownership of the asset or the delivery of the service and reaches an end-of-life point where the asset becomes due for replacement or the service contract terminates. At this point the cycle would recommence.[15][16]
The Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply (CIPS) recommends involvement of procurement staff and skills from an early stage in the cycle, noting that such "early procurement involvement" can have a beneficial impact on the nature and timing of any approach to market, the specification and the sourcing strategy and supplier selection approach adopted.[17]
Procurement decisions fall along a continuum from simple buying transactions to more complex buyer-supplier collaborations.[citation needed] There are a number of models along the sourcing continuum: basic provider, approved provider, preferred provider, performance-based contracting, managed services model, vested business model, shared services model and equity partnerships.[citation needed]
Government procurement or public procurement is when a governing body purchases goods, works, and services from an organization for themselves or the taxpayers.[18][19][20] In 2019, public procurement accounted for approximately 12% of GDP in OECD countries.[21][22] In 2021 the World Bank Group estimated that public procurement made up about 15% of global GDP.[23] Therefore, government procurement accounts for a substantial part of the global economy.
Public procurement is based on the idea that governments should direct their society while giving the private sector the freedom to decide the best practices to produce the desired goods and services.[24]: Chapter 1 One benefit of public procurement is its ability to cultivate innovation and economic growth.[25][26][27] The public sector picks the most capable nonprofit or for-profit organizations available to issue the desired good or service to the taxpayers. This produces competition within the private sector to gain these contracts that then reward the organizations that can supply more cost-effective and quality goods and services. Some contracts also have specific clauses to promote working with minority-led, women-owned businesses and/or state-owned enterprises.[28]
Competition is a key component of public procurement which affects the outcomes of the whole process.[29] There is a great amount of competition over public procurements because of the massive amount of money that flows through these systems; It is estimated that approximately one trillion USD is spent on public procurement worldwide every year.[30]
Sustainable procurement or green procurement is a process whereby organizations meet their needs for goods, services, works and utilities in a way that achieves value for money on a life-cycle basis while addressing equity principles for sustainable development, therefore benefiting societies and the environment across time and geographies.[31] Procurement is often conducted via a tendering or competitive bidding process. The process is used to ensure the buyer receives goods, services or works for the best possible price, when aspects such as quality, quantity, time, and location are compared.[32] Procurement is considered sustainable when organizations broadens this framework by meeting their needs for goods, services, works, and utilities in a way that achieves value for money and promotes positive outcomes not only for the organization itself but for the economy, environment, and society.[33]
Electronic procurement is the purchasing of goods by businesses through the internet or other networked computer connection.[34] Electronic data interchange (EDI) was a forerunner to electronic procurement, this consisted of standardized transmission of data such as inventories and good required electronically. Schoenherr argues that EDI developed from standardized manifests for deliveries to Berlin during the Berlin Airlift which were applied by DuPont in the 1960s and argues that Material requirements planning and Enterprise resource planning were both forerunners to electronic procurement.[35]: 35
Joint procurement takes place when two or more organisations share purchasing activities, and therefore has a more specifically buyer-side focus than many examples of collaborative buyer-seller relationships. Companies may decide to work together for the following reasons:[36]
Joint or collaborative procurement is a common practice within public sector procurement. There are central purchasing bodies in many countries which coordinate joint purchasing activities for public sector organisations. A report commissioned by the European Parliament's Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection (IMCO) has recommended that EU Member States "should consider creating Central Purchasing Bodies (CPBs)" in order to secure "coherent and coordinated procurement".[37]
On a trans-national scale, Guyana, Barbados and Rwanda announced "a programme of mutual support for the local manufacturing of vaccines and medicines" in July 2023 for which a "pooled procurement mechanism" would be required.[38]
The Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply (CIPS) promotes a model of "five rights", which it suggests are "a traditional formula expressing the basic objectives of procurement and the general criteria by which procurement performance is measured", namely that goods and services purchased should be of the 'right quality', in the 'right quantity', delivered to the 'right place' at the 'right time' and obtained at the 'right price'.[39] CIPS has in the past also offered an alternative listing of the five rights as "buy[ing] goods or services of the right quality, in the right quantity, from the right source, at the right time and at the right price.[40] 'Right source' is added as a sixth right in CIPS' 2018 publication, Contract Administration.[41]
Delivery on savings goals is an important part of the procurement function, but this objective is generally seen as value generation rather than cost reduction.[42] CIPS also notes that securing savings is "one measure of purchasing performance", but argues that savings should only be used as a measure of performance where they are "a reflection of the [organisation]'s ... expectations of the purchasing and supply management function". CIPS distinguishes between "savings", which can reduce budgets, and "cost avoidance", which "attempts to thwart price increases and to keep within budget".[43] Examples of savings as a beneficial outcome include:
Ardent Partners published a report in 2011 which presented a comprehensive, industry-wide view into what was happening in the world of procurement at that time by drawing on the experience, performance, and perspective of nearly 250 chief procurement officers (CPOs) and other procurement executives. The report included the main procurement performance and operational benchmarks that procurement leaders use to gauge the success of their organizations. This report found that the average procurement department manages 60.6% of total enterprise spend. This measure, commonly called "spend under management" or "managed spend", refers to the percentage of total enterprise spend (which includes all direct and indirect spend) that a procurement organization manages or influences. Alternatively, the term may refer to the percentage of addressable spend which is influenced by procurement, "addressable spend" being the expenditure which could potentially be influenced.[44] The average procurement department also achieved an annual saving of 6.7% in the last reporting cycle, sourced 52.6% of its addressable spend, and has a contract compliance rate of 62.6%.[45] A more restrictive definition of "spend under management" includes only expenditure which makes use of preferred supplier contracts and negotiated payment rates and terms.[46]
Consultants A.T. Kearney have developed a model for assessing the performance of a procurement organisation or the procurement function within a wider organisation, known as ROSMASM (Return on Supply Management Assets).[47] According to the 2016 ROSMA Performance Check Report, What Good Looks Like,
the procurement profession has a top-tier group of standout performers, a middle-tier that is delivering value, but performing well below the top tier, and a large group of bottom-quartile performers that add limited value to their organizations.[48][49]
CIPS promotes organisational self-assessment using the ROSMA Performance Check, arguing that it enables a procurement department to "measure and explain procurement and supply's value in terms your CFO and CEO will understand, using a common financial standard".[48] Findings in 2020 suggested that "top quartile procurement performers have ROSMA scores two to three times higher than those in the middle two quartiles".[50] A.T. Kearney's report suggests a close match between the self-reported performance of CPOs in the best performing departments and the view of procurement held by the CFO and the organisation more widely, and also notes that weaker performers or "inconsequentials" share a distinct profile marked by lack of "identifiable leadership accountable for procurement's performance.[49]: page 5
Spend under management also contributes to an additional measure of procurement performance or procurement efficiency: procurement operating expense as a percentage of managed spend.[51]
Personnel who undertake procurement on behalf of an organization may be referred to as procurement officers, professionals or specialists, buyers or supply managers.[52] The US Federal Acquisition Regulation refers to Contracting Officers.[53] Staff in managerial positions may be referred to as Purchasing Managers or Procurement Managers. The ISM refers to "the supply profession".[54]
A Purchasing or Procurement Manager's responsibilities may include:
Category management represents a system of organising the roles of staff within a procurement team "in such a way as to focus ... on the [external] supply markets of an organisation", rather than being organised according to the organisation's internal departmental structure.[55]
Specialist procurement roles include construction buyers and travel buyers.[56] Part of the work of a corporate travel buyer is the formulation and implementation of a corporate travel policy.[56]
In many larger organizations the procurement and supply function is led by a board-level or other senior position such as a Director of Supply Chain [57] or a Chief Procurement Officer (CPO). In other cases, procurement is overseen by the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) or Director of Finance, or the growing need for liaison between the CFO and the procurement function has been recognised. A 2006 report by the National Audit Office in the UK commented that in the further education sector, where procurement practice was not well developed and college organisations were relatively small, oversight of procurement by the Director of Finance was a typical arrangement.[58]
Independent or third party personnel who undertake procurement or negotiate purchases on behalf of an organization may be called purchasing agents or buying agents, although the term "purchasing agent" has a longer and broader history: the Institute for Supply Management in the United States was originally called the National Association of Purchasing Agents from its formation in 1915.[59] A commercial agent may both purchase and sell on behalf of a third party.[60]
US Bureau of Labor Statistics research found that there were 526,200 purchasing manager, buyer and purchasing agent positions in the United States in 2019.[61] Various writers have noted that businesses may reduce the numbers of purchasing staff during a recession along with staff in other business areas, despite a tendency to become more dependent on bought-in goods and services as operations contract. For example, US business executive Steve Collins observed that in one major company the purchasing staffbase "was downsized some 30% during the [2010] recession, 'but the expectations for the remaining employees remained unchanged ... The additional workload placed on the remaining employees following the downsizing created a much more challenging environment'".[62] In 2021 the Australasian Procurement and Construction Council (APCC) put forward an appeal asking everyone working in the procurement profession in Australia to include the term in their occupational title when completing their August 2021 census return.[63]
The European Commission issued a recommendation in October 2017 directed towards the "professionalisation of public procurement" so that Member States could "attract, develop and retain" staff in public purchasing roles, focus on performance and "make the most out of the available tools and techniques".[64] Research undertaken in 2020 highlighted the importance of social or "soft" skills within the skill sets of professional procurement staff.[65]
Some writers have observed that there is limited opportunity for women to enter procurement because of stereotypes viewing some roles as not appropriate for women.[66]
Management consultants Oliver Wyman reported in 2019 that, based on a survey of over 300 CPOs in Europe, US, and Asia working across 14 industries, 38% of the staff in the procurement organizations surveyed were women: 60% of CPOs stated that there were more women in their organization than three years previously, while 6% said that the number of women had decreased. The effect of this growing involvement of women in procurement was recognised in the form of "more creativity and innovation", acknowledged by 76% of the CPO's surveyed.[67]
A contractual obligation to procure refers to an absolute obligation to ensure that the action is done or the condition is met,[68] for example a contract with a principal supplier may include a clause requiring the company to "procure" that its subsidiaries, holding companies and other associated businesses undertake the same commitments as those contractually imposed on the principal.[69]
The use of the word "procure" in a joint venture agreement between Nearfield Ltd., Lincoln Nominees Ltd., and other partners, in relation to the utilisation of a bank loan, gave rise to a dispute between the parties regarding the meaning of the word "procure", which was resolved in 2006 by the judge, Peter Smith, confirming that the "normal meaning of the word" is clear and well understood:"I do not see that procure means anything other than as Nearfield [the claimant] puts it 'see to it'".[70] In this case, the obligation to "procure the payment" of the loan amounted to a guarantee of that loan.[71]
Various commentators have made projections regarding the future of procurement.[72] Charlotte Payne, general manager of CIPS in Australia and New Zealand, suggests that "procurement's role in sustainability is going to be massive", while a CIPS general overview anticipates that "there is little chance that procurement and supply will enter a period of calm any time soon".[72]
{{cite book}}
{{cite journal}}
|journal=
ميغالوكوريون الإحداثيات 39°33′35″N 21°50′31″E / 39.559722222222°N 21.841944444444°E / 39.559722222222; 21.841944444444 تقسيم إداري البلد اليونان[1] عدد السكان عدد السكان 1490 (2011) معلومات أخرى منطقة زمنية ت ع م+02:00 (توقيت قياسي)، وت ع م+03:00 (توقيت صيفي) رمز جيونيمز 257406 تعدي
Historic house in Connecticut, United States This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: A. Everett Austin House – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) United States historic placeA. Everett Austin HouseU.S. National Register of Hist…
Para geolog sedang menjelajah cadas sedimenter Jura di Makhtesh Gadol, Gurun Negev, Israel Geolog ialah seseorang yang mempelajari struktur fisik dan proses Bumi dan planet sistem tata surya untuk kemajuan geologi. Pendidikan sarjana geolog mencakup sejumlah bidang studi dalam fisika, matematika, kimia, dan kemungkinan biologi, di samping kelas yang ditawarkan di Jurusan Geologi; geologi sejarah dan fisik, petrologi metamorfik dan petrografi, hidrogeologi, sedimentologi, stratigrafi, mineralogi,…
Masaki Okino Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Masaki OkinoTanggal lahir 13 Desember 1996 (umur 26)Tempat lahir Prefektur Nagasaki, JepangPosisi bermain GelandangKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)2015– Cerezo Osaka * Penampilan dan gol di klub senior hanya dihitung dari liga domestik Masaki Okino (lahir 13 Desember 1996) adalah pemain sepak bola asal Jepang. Karier Masaki Okino pernah bermain untuk Cerezo Osaka. Pranala luar (Jepang) Profil dan statistik di situs web resmi J. League Data Si…
Nicholas KemmerBiographieNaissance 7 décembre 1911Saint-PétersbourgDécès 21 octobre 1998 (à 86 ans)ÉdimbourgNationalité britanniqueFormation Université de GöttingenUniversité de ZurichActivités Physicien, professeur d'universitéAutres informationsA travaillé pour Université de CambridgeUniversité d'ÉdimbourgMembre de Royal Society (1956)Directeurs de thèse Gregor Wentzel (1935), Wolfgang Pauli (1935)Distinctions Liste détailléeMédaille Hughes (1966)Prix en mémoire de Ro…
Unfinished romance by Chrétien de Troyes Perceval, the Story of the GrailPerceval arrives at the hermitage in a 15th-century illustration of PercevalOriginal titleFrench: Perceval ou le Conte du GraalAuthor(s)Chrétien de TroyesPatronPhilip I, Count of FlandersDedicated toPhilip I, Count of FlandersLanguageOld FrenchDatebetween 1182 and 1190GenreChivalric romanceVerse formOctosyllable rhyming coupletsLength9,000 linesSubjectArthurian legend Perceval, the Story of the Grail (French: Perceval ou …
Handley Page Type X Mostrando slots abiertos y cerrados, y alerones bajados. Tipo Monoplano experimentalFabricante Handley Page Aircraft CompanyPrimer vuelo 24 de febrero de 1921N.º construidos 1[editar datos en Wikidata] El Handley Page Type X (más tarde denominado HP.20) fue una modificación experimental monoplano de un Airco DH.9A, construida para estudiar los slots controlables y los alerones ranurados como dispositivos de alta sustentación. Fue el primer avión en volar con sl…
Bandar Udara Regional YanbuBandar Udara Pangeran Abdul Muhsin Bin Abdul Azizمطار الأمير عبد المحسن بن عبد العزيز الإقليميTerminal penumpang baru dan Menara Kontrol Bandar Udara.IATA: YNBICAO: OEYN YNBLokasi Bandar Udara di Arab SaudiInformasiJenisPublikMelayaniYanbuLokasiYanbu, Arab SaudiKetinggian dpl8 mdplKoordinat24°08′39″N 38°03′48″E / 24.14417°N 38.06333°E / 24.14417; 38.06333Landasan pacu Arah Panjang Permu…
Beilschmiedia sericans Біологічна класифікація Царство: Рослини (Plantae) Клада: Судинні рослини (Tracheophyta) Клада: Покритонасінні (Angiosperms) Клада: Магноліїди (Magnoliids) Порядок: Лавроцвіті (Laurales) Родина: Лаврові (Lauraceae) Рід: Beilschmiedia Вид: Beilschmiedia sericans (B. sericans) Біноміальна назва Beilschmiedia sericansKosterm., 1952 …
Yasmine KherbacheHakim Mahkamah Konstitusi BelgiaPetahanaMulai menjabat 17 Desember 2019 Informasi pribadiKebangsaanBelgiaProfesiHakimSunting kotak info • L • B Yasmine Kherbache adalah hakim Mahkamah Konstitusi Belgia. Ia mulai menjabat sebagai hakim di mahkamah tersebut pada tahun 17 Desember 2019. Ia merupakan hakim berlatar belakang magistrat dan berasal dari kelompok bahasa Belanda.[1] Referensi ^ Daftar Hakim Mahkamah Konstitusi Belgia. Mahkamah Konstitusi Belgia.…
لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع روزيتا (توضيح). روزيتا المشغل وكالة الفضاء الأوروبية سمي باسم حجر رشيد تاريخ الإطلاق 2 مارس 2004[1] موقع الإطلاق إيلا-3 [لغات أخرى][2] تاريخ الهبوط 30 سبتمبر 2016[3] موقع الهبوط 67P/تشوريوموف-جيراسيمنكو نقطة النهاية 6…
French television game show Show Me Your VoiceGenre Mystery Music Reality competition Panel show Game show Based onI Can See Your Voiceby CJ ENMDirected byGuillaume CharlesPresented byIssa DoumbiaStarring Éric Antoine Hélène Segara Country of originFranceOriginal languageFrenchNo. of episodes2ProductionProducerRenaud RahardCamera setupMultiple-camera setupProduction companyWarner Bros. International Television ProductionOriginal releaseNetworkM6Release22 April (2021-04-22) –13 May…
Protein-coding gene in Homo sapiens TBR1IdentifiersAliasesTBR1, TBR-1, TES-56, T-box, brain 1, IDDAS, T-box brain transcription factor 1External IDsOMIM: 604616 MGI: 107404 HomoloGene: 4807 GeneCards: TBR1 Gene location (Human)Chr.Chromosome 2 (human)[1]Band2q24.2Start161,416,297 bp[1]End161,425,870 bp[1]Gene location (Mouse)Chr.Chromosome 2 (mouse)[2]Band2 C1.3|2 35.56 cMStart61,633,274 bp[2]End61,644,458 bp[2]RNA expression patternBgeeHumanM…
Church in Alie Street, London Borough of Tower HamletsSt George's German Lutheran ChurchLocationAlie Street, London Borough of Tower HamletsDenominationLutheranHistoryFounded1762Founder(s)Dietrich Beckman St George's German Lutheran Church is a church in Alie Street, Whitechapel just to the east of the City of London. From its foundation in 1762 until 1995 it was used by German Lutherans. Today the small vestry serves as an office for the Historic Chapels Trust and the church is available for hi…
Indian multinational technology company ZOHO redirects here. For other uses, see Zoho (disambiguation). Zoho CorporationZoho headquarters in Chennai, IndiaTypePrivateIndustry Technology Information technology Software development Cloud computing Founded17 March 1996; 27 years ago (17 March 1996)Founder Sridhar Vembu Tony Thomas HeadquartersChennai, Tamil Nadu, IndiaArea servedWorldwideKey people Sridhar Vembu(chairman and CEO) Radha Vembu Sekar Vembu Products Software development On…
此條目需要补充更多来源。 (2022年7月21日)请协助補充多方面可靠来源以改善这篇条目,无法查证的内容可能會因為异议提出而被移除。致使用者:请搜索一下条目的标题(来源搜索:阿尔巴尼亚广播电视台 — 网页、新闻、书籍、学术、图像),以检查网络上是否存在该主题的更多可靠来源(判定指引)。 阿尔巴尼亚广播电视台類型电视、广播國家 阿尔巴尼亚可收視地…
Canadian athlete (1882–1963) Robert Kerr Medal record Men's athletics Representing Canada Olympic Games 1908 London 200 metres 1908 London 100 metres Robert Kerr (June 9, 1882 – May 12, 1963) was an Irish Canadian sprinter. He won the gold medal in the 200 metres and the bronze medal in the 100 metres at the 1908 Summer Olympics.[1] Biography Kerr was born in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh, Ireland. His family immigrated to Canada when he was five, eventually settling in Ham…
IBM Fellow Shalini KapoorBornBareilly, IndiaNationalityIndianCitizenshipIndiaEducationB.Tech. (Computer Science), MBA (Information Systems)Alma materS. P. Jain Institute of Management and Research, Institute of Engineering and TechnologyOccupationChief TechnologistEmployerAmazon Web Services Shalini Kapoor is the India's first woman IBM Fellow.[1][2][3] She is working as President and Chief Technologist for AWS, India.[4][5][6][7][…
Hotel in Lancaster, Pennsylvania Cartoon Network HotelGeneral informationLocation2285 Lincoln Hwy ELancaster, PennsylvaniaOpening1971 (As Ramada Inn)1974 (As Continental Inn)January 10, 2020 (As Cartoon Network Hotel)OwnerRamada Inn (1971-1974)Gleiberman family (1974-2018)Palace Entertainment (2018-present) under a license from Cartoon Network (Warner Bros. Discovery)Technical detailsFloor count2Other informationNumber of rooms165[1]WebsiteOfficial website The Cartoon Network Hotel is a …
Politiek in Roemenië Politiek in Roemenië President Klaus Iohannis Premier Marcel Ciolacu Parlement Kamer van Afgevaardigden Senaat Politieke partijen in Roemenië Politieke partijen van minderheden Verkiezingen in Roemenië Parlementsverkiezingen 2020 Parlementsverkiezingen 2016 Presidentsverkiezingen 2014 Bestuurlijke indeling van Roemenië Districten van Roemenië Comună Roemeense EU-toetreding Portaal PolitiekPortaal Roemenië Dit is een lijst van politieke partije…
Lokasi Pengunjung: 3.129.26.230