Nikolaas Tinbergen

Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen in 1978
Born
Nikolaas Tinbergen

(1907-04-15)15 April 1907
The Hague, Netherlands
Died21 December 1988(1988-12-21) (aged 81)
Oxford, England
Alma materLeiden University
Known for
SpouseElisabeth Rutten (1912–1988)
Children5
Awards
Scientific career
Fields
InstitutionsUniversity of Oxford
Doctoral advisorHilbrand Boschma[2]
Doctoral students

Nikolaas "Niko" Tinbergen FRS[1] (/ˈtɪnbɜːrɡən/ TIN-bur-gən, Dutch: [ˈnikoː(laːs) ˈtɪmbɛrɣə(n)]; 15 April 1907 – 21 December 1988) was a Dutch biologist and ornithologist who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Karl von Frisch and Konrad Lorenz[7][8][9][10][11] for their discoveries concerning the organization and elicitation of individual and social behavior patterns in animals. He is regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology, the study of animal behavior.

In 1951, he published The Study of Instinct, an influential book on animal behaviour. In the 1960s, he collaborated with filmmaker Hugh Falkus on a series of wildlife films, including The Riddle of the Rook (1972) and Signals for Survival (1969), which won the Italia prize in that year and the American blue ribbon in 1971.

Early life and education

Born in The Hague, Netherlands, he was one of five children of Dirk Cornelis Tinbergen and his wife Jeannette van Eek. His brother, Jan Tinbergen, won the first Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1969.[12] They are the only siblings to each win a Nobel Prize.[13] Another brother, Luuk Tinbergen, was also a noted biologist.

Tinbergen's interest in nature manifested itself when he was young. He studied biology at Leiden University and was a prisoner of war during World War II in Kamp Sint-Michielsgestel. Tinbergen's experience as a prisoner of the Nazis led to some friction with longtime intellectual collaborator Konrad Lorenz, and it was several years before the two reconciled.[14]

After the war, Tinbergen moved to England, where he taught at the University of Oxford and was a fellow first at Merton College, Oxford, and later at Wolfson College, Oxford.[14] Several of his graduate students went on to become prominent biologists including Richard Dawkins,[4] Marian Dawkins,[3] Desmond Morris,[6] Iain Douglas-Hamilton,[15] and Tony Sinclair.[16]

The Study of Instinct

Figure 1. Tinbergen's hierarchical model. Modified from The Study of Instinct (1951).

In 1951 Tinbergen's The Study of Instinct was published. Behavioural ecologists and evolutionary biologists still recognise the contribution this book offered the field of behavioural science studies. The Study of Instinct summarises Tinbergen's ideas on innate behavioural reactions in animals and the adaptiveness and evolutionary aspects of these behaviours. By behaviour, he means the total movements made by the intact animal; innate behaviour is that which is not changed by the learning process. The major question of the book is the role of internal and external stimuli in controlling the expression of behaviour.[17]

In particular, he was interested in explaining 'spontaneous' behaviours: those that occurred in their complete form the first time they were performed and that seemed resistant to the effects of learning. He explains how behaviour can be considered a combination of these spontaneous behaviour patterns and as set series of reactions to particular stimuli. Behaviour is a reaction in that to a certain extent it is reliant on external stimuli, however it is also spontaneous since it is also dependent upon internal causal factors.[17]

His model for how certain behavioural reactions are provoked was based on work by Konrad Lorenz. Lorenz postulated that for each instinctive act there is a specific energy which builds up in a reservoir in the brain. In this model, Lorenz envisioned a reservoir with a spring valve at its base that an appropriate stimulus could act on, much like a weight on a scale pan pulling against a spring and releasing the reservoir of energy, an action which would lead an animal to express the desired behaviour.[17]

Tinbergen added complexity to this model, a model now known as Tinbergen's hierarchical model. He suggested that motivational impulses build up in nervous centres in the brain which are held in check by blocks. The blocks are removed by an innate releasing mechanism that allows the energy to flow to the next centre (each centre containing a block that needs to be removed) in a cascade until the behaviour is expressed. Tinbergen's model shows multiple levels of complexity and that related behaviours are grouped.[18]

An example is in his experiments with foraging honey bees. He showed that honey bees show curiosity for yellow and blue paper models of flowers, and suggested that these were visual stimuli causing the buildup of energy in one specific centre. However, the bees rarely landed on the model flowers unless the proper odour was also applied. In this case, the chemical stimuli of the odour allowed the next link in the chain to be released, encouraging the bee to land. The final step was for the bee to insert its mouthparts into the flower and initiate suckling. Tinbergen envisioned this as concluding the reaction set for honey bee feeding behaviour.[19]

Nobel Prize

In 1973, Tinbergen, along with Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns".[20] The award recognised their studies on genetically programmed behaviour patterns, their origins, maturation and their elicitation by key stimuli. In his Nobel Lecture, Tinbergen addressed the somewhat unconventional decision of the Nobel Foundation to award the prize for Physiology or Medicine to three men who had until recently been regarded as "mere animal watchers". Tinbergen stated that their revival of the "watching and wondering" approach to studying behaviour could indeed contribute to the relief of human suffering.[21]

The studies performed by the trio on fish, insects and birds laid the foundation for further studies on the importance of specific experiences during critical periods of normal development, as well as the effects of abnormal psychosocial situations in mammals. At the time, these discoveries were stated to have caused "a breakthrough in the understanding of the mechanisms behind various symptoms of psychiatric disease, such as anguish, compulsive obsession, stereotypic behaviour and catatonic posture".[22] Tinbergen's contribution to these studies included the testing of the hypotheses of Lorenz/von Frisch by means of "comprehensive, careful, and ingenious experiments"[23] as well as his work on supernormal stimuli. The work of Tinbergen during this time was also regarded as having possible implications for further research in child development and behaviour.[24]

He also caused some intrigue by dedicating a large part of his acceptance speech to FM Alexander, originator of the Alexander technique, a method which investigates postural reflexes and responses in human beings.[25]

Other awards and honours

In 1950 Tinbergen became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[26] He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1962.[1] He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1961,[27] the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1974,[28] and the American Philosophical Society in 1975.[29] He was also awarded the Godman-Salvin Medal in 1969 by the British Ornithologists' Union,[30] and in 1973 received the Swammerdam Medal[31] and Wilhelm Bölsche Medal[32] (from the Genootschap ter bervordering van Natuur-, Genees- en Heelkunde of the University of Amsterdam and the Kosmos-Gesellschaft der Naturfreunde respectively).

Approach to animal behaviour

Tinbergen described four questions he believed should be asked of any animal behaviour,[33][34][35][36] which were:

  1. Causation (mechanism): what are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning? How do behaviour and psyche "function" on the molecular, physiological, neuro-ethological, cognitive and social level, and what do the relations between the levels look like? (compare: Nicolai Hartmann: "The laws about the levels of complexity")
  2. Development (ontogeny): how does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown? Which developmental steps (the ontogenesis follows an "inner plan") and which environmental factors play when / which role? (compare: Recapitulation theory)
  3. Function (adaptation): how does the behaviour impact on the animal's chances of survival and reproduction?
  4. Evolution (phylogeny): how does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have arisen through the process of phylogeny? Why did structural associations (behaviour can be seen as a "time space structure") evolve in this manner and not otherwise?*

In ethology and sociobiology, causation and ontogeny are summarised as the "proximate mechanisms", while adaptation and phylogeny are the "ultimate mechanisms". They are still considered as the cornerstone of modern ethology, sociobiology and transdisciplinarity in Human Sciences.

Supernormal stimulus

A major body of Tinbergen's research focused on what he termed the supernormal stimulus. This was the concept that one could build an artificial object which was a stronger stimulus or releaser for an instinct than the object for which the instinct originally evolved. He constructed plaster eggs to see which a bird preferred to sit on, finding that they would select those that were larger, had more defined markings, or more saturated colour—and a dayglo-bright one with black polka dots would be selected over the bird's own pale, dappled eggs.

Tinbergen found that territorial male three-spined stickleback (a small freshwater fish) would attack a wooden fish model more vigorously than a real male if its underside was redder. He constructed cardboard dummy butterflies with more defined markings that male butterflies would try to mate with in preference to real females. The superstimulus, by its exaggerations, clearly delineated what characteristics were eliciting the instinctual response.

Among the modern works calling attention to Tinbergen's classic work is Deirdre Barrett's 2010 book, Supernormal Stimuli.

Autism

Tinbergen applied his observational methods to the problems of autistic children. He recommended a "holding therapy" in which parents hold their autistic children for long periods of time while attempting to establish eye contact, even when a child resists the embrace.[37] However, his interpretations of autistic behaviour, and the holding therapy that he recommended, lacked scientific support[38] and the therapy has been described as controversial and potentially abusive, particularly by individuals with autism themselves.[39]

Bibliography

Some of the publications of Tinbergen are:

  • 1939: 'The Behavior of the Snow Bunting in Spring.' In: Transactions of the Linnaean Society of New York, vol. V (October 1939). OCLC 885412024
  • 1951: The Study of Instinct. Oxford, Clarendon Press. OCLC 249804809
  • 1952: Derived activities; their causation, biological significance, origin, and emancipation during evolution. Q. Rev. Biol. 27:1–32. doi:10.1086/398642. [1].
  • 1953: The Herring Gull's World. London, Collins. OCLC 781602203
  • 1953: Social Behaviour in Animals: With Special Reference to Vertebrates. Methuen & Co. OCLC 513004 (reprinted 2014): London & New York : Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84872-297-2, 978-1-315-84999-7 (print & eBook)

Publications about Tinbergen and his work:

  • Burkhardt Jr., RW (2005). Patterns of Behavior : Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen, and the Founding of Ethology. ISBN 0-226-08090-0
  • Kruuk, H (2003). Niko's Nature: The Life of Niko Tinbergen and His Science of Animal Behaviour. Oxford, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-851558-8
  • Stamp Dawkins, M; Halliday, TR; Dawkins, R (1991). The Tinbergen Legacy. London, Chapman & Hall. ISBN 0-412-39120-1

Personal life

Tinbergen was a member of the advisory committee to the Anti-Concorde Project[citation needed] and was also an atheist.[40]

Tinbergen married Elisabeth Rutten (1912–1990) and they had five children. Later in life he suffered depression and feared he might, like his brother Luuk, commit suicide. He was treated by his friend, whose ideas he had greatly influenced, John Bowlby.[41] Tinbergen died on 21 December 1988, after suffering a stroke at his home in Oxford, England.[1]

References

  1. ^ a b c d Hinde, Robert A. (1990). "Nikolaas Tinbergen. 15 April 1907 – 21 December 1988". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 36: 547–565. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1990.0043.
  2. ^ Burkhardt, R. W. Jr. (2010). "Niko Tinbergen" (PDF). Elsevier. pp. 428–433. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
  3. ^ a b Dawkins, Marian (1970). The Mechanism of Hunting by 'Searching Image' in Birds. jisc.ac.uk (DPhil thesis). University of Oxford. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.453252. Archived from the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
  4. ^ a b Dawkins, Clinton Richard (1966). Selective pecking in the domestic chick. bodleian.ox.ac.uk (DPhil thesis). University of Oxford. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.710826.
  5. ^ "Aubrey Manning". University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
  6. ^ a b Beale, Graeme Robert (2009). Tinbergian Practice, themes and variations: the field and laboratory methods and practice of the Animal Behaviour Research Group under Nikolaas Tinbergen at Oxford University. University of Edinburgh (PhD Thesis). hdl:1842/4103?show=full.
  7. ^ Tinbergen autobiography at nobelprize.org
  8. ^ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973: von Frisch, Lorenz and Tinbergen
  9. ^ Tinbergen Nobel Lecture
  10. ^ Dewsbury, D. A. (2003). "The 1973 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine: Recognition for behavioral science?". American Psychologist. 58 (9): 747–752. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.747. PMID 14584992.
  11. ^ Raju, T. N. (1999). "The Nobel chronicles. 1973: Karl von Frisch (1886–1982); Konrad Lorenz (1903–89); and Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907–88)". Lancet. 354 (9184): 1130. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)76931-2. PMID 10509540. S2CID 54236399.
  12. ^ Lundberg, Erik (1969). "The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1969". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  13. ^ "Nobel Prize Facts".
  14. ^ a b "Encyclopedia.com Nikolaas Tinbergen". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
  15. ^ Daston, Lorraine; Mitman, Gregg (2005). Thinking with Animals: New Perspectives on Anthropomorphism. Columbia University Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-231-50377-8.
  16. ^ Sinclair, Anthony (2012). Serengeti Story: Life and Science in the World's Greatest Wildlife Region. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 9780199645527.
  17. ^ a b c Hinde, R. A. Ethological Models and the Concept of 'Drive'. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 6, 321–331 (1956)
  18. ^ Tinbergen, Nikolaas (1951). The Study of Instinct. Oxford University Press. pp. nnn–mmm.[page needed]
  19. ^ Tinbergen, Nikolaas (1951). The Study of Instinct. Oxford University Press. pp. nnn–mmm.[page needed]
  20. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973".
  21. ^ Tinbergen, N. Ethology and stress diseases. Physiology Or Medicine: 1971–1980 19711980, 113 (1992)
  22. ^ Zetterström, R. The Nobel Prize for the introduction of ethology, or animal behaviour, as a new research field: possible implications for child development and behaviour: Nobel prizes of importance to Paediatrics. Acta Paediatrica 96, 1105–1108 (2007).
  23. ^ Cronholm, Börje (1973). "Award Ceremony Speech". Nobelprize.org.
  24. ^ Zetterström, R. The Nobel Prize for the introduction of ethology, or animal behaviour, as a new research field: possible implications for child development and behaviour: Nobel prizes of importance to Paediatrics. Acta Paediatrica 96, 1105–1108 (2007)
  25. ^ Tinbergen, Nikolaas (12 December 1973). "Nikolaas Tinbergen Nobel Lecture Ethology and Stress Diseases" (PDF). NobelPrize.org.
  26. ^ "Niko Tinbergen (1907–1988)". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
  27. ^ "Nikolaas Tinbergen". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
  28. ^ "Nikolaas Tinbergen". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
  29. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
  30. ^ "Medals and awards " British Ornithologists' Union". bou.org.uk. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  31. ^ Amsterdam, Universiteit van. "Swammerdam medaille – GNGH – Universiteit van Amsterdam". gngh.uva.nl. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  32. ^ Anderson, Ted (2013). The Life of David Lack: Father of Evolutionary Ecology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0199922659.
  33. ^ Diagram on The Four Areas of Biology
  34. ^ Further Diagrams on The Four Areas of Biology by Gerhard Medicus (Documents No. 6, 7 and 8 of Block 1 in English)
  35. ^ Lorenz, K. (1937). "Biologische Fragestellung in der Tierpsychologie". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 1: 24–32. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1937.tb01401.x. (in English: Biological Questions in Animal Psychology).
  36. ^ Tinbergen, N. (1963). "On aims and methods of Ethology". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 20 (4): 410–433. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x.
  37. ^ Tinbergen N, Tinbergen EA (1986). Autistic Children: New Hope for a Cure (new ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-04-157011-3.
  38. ^ Bishop, D. V. M. (2008). "Forty years on: Uta Frith's contribution to research on autism and dyslexia, 1966–2006". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 61 (1): 16–26. doi:10.1080/17470210701508665. PMC 2409181. PMID 18038335.
  39. ^ Betty Fry Williams; Randy Lee Williams (2011). Effective programs for treating autism spectrum disorder: applied behavior analysis models. Taylor & Francis. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-0-415-99931-1. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  40. ^ Deirdre Barrett (2010). Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-393-06848-1. Tinbergen had never been a religious man. Wartime atrocities, however, had highlighted the absence of a deity for him while both sides invoked one aligned with themselves, and this turned him into a militant atheist.
  41. ^ Van Der Horst, F. C. P. (2010). "John Bowlby's treatment of Nikolaas "Niko" Tinbergen's depressions". History of Psychology. 13 (2): 206–208. doi:10.1037/a0019381c.

Media related to Nikolaas Tinbergen at Wikimedia Commons

Read other articles:

Nature reserve in Salem Sound, Massachusetts Great Misery Island, as seen from Beverly Farms, Massachusetts The Misery Islands (Great Misery Island 42°32′55″N 70°47′53″W / 42.54861°N 70.79806°W / 42.54861; -70.79806 and Little Misery Island 42°32′40″N 70°47′53″W / 42.54444°N 70.79806°W / 42.54444; -70.79806) are an 87-acre (350,000 m2) nature reserve established in 1935 in Salem Sound close to the Salem Harbor in Sal...

Genus of sloth Two-toed sloths[1] Linnaeus's two-toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus) Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Pilosa Superfamily: Mylodontoidea Family: CholoepodidaeGray, 1871[2] Genus: CholoepusIlliger, 1811[1] Type species Bradypus didactylusLinnaeus, 1758 Species Choloepus didactylus Choloepus hoffmanni Choloepus is a genus of xenarthran mammals of Central and South America within the monotyp...

П'єтро Перуджіноітал. Pietro Perugino Автопортрет 1497—1500 ррПри народженні Pietro di Cristoforo VannucciНародження 1446(1446)Чітта-делла-П'євеСмерть 1523(1523)  Перуджа(Чорна смерть)Національність італієцьКраїна ІталіяДіяльність художникНапрямок ВідродженняВплив на Рафаель СантіВчитель Андреа...

الطائرة المفقودةمعلومات عامةالصنف الفني تشويقتاريخ الصدور 22 أكتوبر 1984 مدة العرض 100 دقيقةالبلد مصر الطاقمالمخرج أحمد النحاس الكاتب أحمد النحاسالبطولة  القائمة ... محمود ياسين سهير رمزي رجاء يوسف محيي إسماعيل جلال عيسى محمد لطفي شعبان حسين فؤاد خليل محمود الزهيري أحمد حجا

《月里青山淡如画》From Repair To Pair类型当代、都市、国潮、爱情格式网络剧原作文物修复师猫尚书作品导演查传谊主演李庚希、张超、周峻纬制作国家/地区 中国大陆语言汉语普通话季数1集数23集[1]每集长度约45分钟制作拍摄/制作年份2021年[1]-2022年拍攝地點 中国大陆江苏苏州发行许可(京)剧审字(2022)第031号[2]播出信息 首播频道优酷宠爱剧场播出国家

2019 basketball tournament in the US 2019 SEC men's basketball tournamentClassificationDivision ISeason2018–19Teams14SiteBridgestone ArenaNashville, TNChampionsAuburn (2nd title)Winning coachBruce Pearl (1st title)MVPBryce Brown (Auburn)Attendance114,832TelevisionSEC Network, ESPNSEC men's basketball tournaments← 20182020 → 2018–19 Southeastern Conference men's basketball standings vte Conf Overall Team W   L   PCT W   L   PCT No. 15...

NGC 4577   جزء من عنقود العذراء المجري  الكوكبة العذراء  رمز الفهرس VCC 1780 (Virgo Cluster Catalog)2MASX J12391244+0600439 (Two Micron All Sky Survey, Extended source catalogue)EVCC 994 (Extended Virgo Cluster Catalog)IRAS 12366+0617 (IRAS)IRAS F12366+0617 (IRAS)MCG+01-32-125 (فهرس المجرات الموروفولوجي)NGC 4577 (الفهرس العام الجديد)NGC 4591 (الفهرس العام الجديد)PSCz Q12366+06...

Government agency in Connecticut Connecticut Department of TransportationAgency overviewFormed1965Preceding agencyConnecticut Highway DepartmentJurisdictionConnecticutHeadquarters2800 Berlin Turnpike, Newington, ConnecticutAgency executiveGarrett T. Eucalitto, CommissionerParent agencyState of ConnecticutWebsitect.gov/dot This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to a...

Protected area in Victoria, AustraliaGreater Bendigo National ParkVictoriaIUCN category II (national park) Notley camping area, Greater Bendigo National Park.Greater Bendigo National ParkNearest town or cityBendigoCoordinates36°40′26″S 144°15′17″E / 36.67389°S 144.25472°E / -36.67389; 144.25472Established30 October 2002 (2002-10-30)[1]Area170 km2 (65.6 sq mi)[1]Managing authoritiesParks VictoriaWebsiteGreater Be...

For other uses, see Souled Out (disambiguation). World Championship Wrestling pay-per-view series Professional wrestling pay-per-view event series Souled OutThe Souled Out logo used for the last edition of the pay-per-viewPromotionsWorld Championship WrestlingBrandsnWo (1997)WCW/nWo (1998-1999)First eventSouled Out (1997)Last eventSouled Out (2000)Signature matchesWCW roster vs. nWo members Souled Out was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event promoted by World Championship Wrestli...

International sporting eventWomen's double sculls at the 2023 Pan American GamesVenueLaguna GrandeDatesOctober 21 – October 25Competitors20 from 10 nationsWinning time7:02.11Medalists Madeleine FochtVeronica Nicacio  United States Melita AbrahamAntonia Abraham  Chile Alizée BrienShaye de Paiva  Canada«2019 Rowing at the2023 Pan American GamesQualificationSingle scullsmenwomenDouble scullsmenwomenLwt double scullsmenwomenQuadruple...

Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada November 2022. Chuang Chuan-YingInformasi latar belakangLahir28 Februari 1985 (umur 38)Banqiao, TaiwanAsalTaiwanGenremandopopPekerjaanPenyanyi, aktris, penggubah lagu, penulisInstrumenVocalTahun aktif2007-kiniLabelUniversal Music TaiwanSitus webhttps://www.face...

KeukaTypePrivateIndustrySportswearFounded2000; 23 years ago (2000)HeadquartersCelaya, Guanajuato, MexicoProductsSportswearWebsitewww.keuka.com.mx Keuka is a Mexican brand[1] engaged in the manufacture of sportswear, especially for football equipment.[2] Sponsorship Keuka has sponsored several Mexican teams from first, second and third divisions, as well as teams from Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica and also many national teams in its history. National teams  ...

2010 animated film by Sylvain Chomet The IllusionistTheatrical release posterFrenchL'Illusionniste Directed bySylvain ChometWritten bySylvain ChometBased onThe Illusionist by Jacques TatiProduced bySally ChometBob LastStarringJean-Claude DondaEilidh RankinEdited bySylvain ChometMusic bySylvain ChometProductioncompaniesPathéDjango FilmsAllied FilmmakersDistributed byPathé Distribution (France)Warner Bros. Entertainment UK (United Kingdom)[1]Release dates 16 June 2010 (...

British TV series or programme Probation OfficerGenreDramaWritten byJulian Bond Peter Yeldham Phillip Grenville MannDirected byPeter Sasdy Christopher Morahan Royston Morley Josephine DouglasStarringJohn Paul Jessica Spencer David Davies John ScottCountry of originUnited KingdomOriginal languageEnglishNo. of series4No. of episodes109ProductionProducersAntony Kearey Rex FirkinRunning time60 minutesProduction companyAssociated TelevisionOriginal releaseNetworkITVRelease14 September 1959...

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article may contain excessive or inappropriate references to self-published sources. Please help improve it by removing references to unreliable sources where they are used inappropriately. (March 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this...

City in Iowa, United StatesUnionville, IowaCityThe post office building in Unionville, IowaLocation of Unionville, IowaCoordinates: 40°49′05″N 92°41′45″W / 40.81806°N 92.69583°W / 40.81806; -92.69583Country United StatesState IowaCountyAppanooseArea[1] • Total0.75 sq mi (1.95 km2) • Land0.75 sq mi (1.95 km2) • Water0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2)Elevation[2]948&...

Village in Devon, England The village hall in East Portlemouth East Portlemouth is a small Devon village situated at the southern end of the Kingsbridge Estuary, on the south Devon Coast. The population of this parish taken at the 2011 census was 162.[1] The village is sited on a hill giving views to the north to Kingsbridge and on a clear day as far as Dartmoor. There is a small ferry that runs to Salcombe in the opposite side of the estuary, and a beach that is popular with holidaym...

PegasusRasi bintangDaftar bintang di rasi bintang PegasusSingkatanPegGenitivusPegasiSimbolismeKuda Terbang atau Kuda BersayapAsensio rekta23 hDeklinasi+15°Luas1121 derajat persegi (7)Bintang lebih terang dari 3.00m5Bintang paling terangMarkab (α Peg) (2.51m)Hujan meteorJuly PegasidsRasi yangberbatasanAndromedaLacertaCygnusVulpeculaDelphinusEquuleusAquariusPiscesTerlihat di garis lintang antara +90° dan −65°.Terlihat paling baik pada pukul 21:00 (9 malam) selama bulan Oktober. Pegas...

Australian rugby league footballer Martin KennedyPersonal informationBorn (1989-02-20) 20 February 1989 (age 34)Lismore, New South Wales, AustraliaPlaying informationHeight190 cm (6 ft 3 in)Weight122 kg (19 st 3 lb)PositionProp Club Years Team Pld T G FG P 2009–13 Sydney Roosters 66 4 0 0 16 2014 Brisbane Broncos 16 0 0 0 0 Total 82 4 0 0 16 Source: RLP[1] Martin Kennedy (born 20 February 1989) is an Australian professional rugby league footballer ...