Nicarao

Nahua community in Rivas, Nicaragua.
Total population
20,000+
Regions with significant populations
Western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica
Nicaragua	Estimated 20,000[1][2]
Costa Rica	~1000
Languages
Nawat, Nicaraguan Spanish
Religion
Predominantly Roman Catholic
Related ethnic groups
Nahuas, Pipil people, Mexica

The Nicarao are an Indigenous Nahua people who live in western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica.^{[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]} They are the southernmost Nahua group located in southern Mesoamerica. They spoke the Nahuat language before it went extinct in both countries after Spanish conquest.^[10][11]

The Nicarao are descended from Toltecs who migrated from North America and central and southern Mexico over the course of several centuries from approximately 700 CE onwards.^{[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]} This branch of the Nahua originated in Chiapas, which was inhabited by Nahuat-speaking Toltecs for hundreds of years before they migrated further into Central America.^{[21][10][22][23][24][25][26][27]} Around 1200 CE, the Nicarao split from the Pipil people, moved into what is now Nicaragua, seized most of the fertile lands in the area, and eventually separated and formed their own chiefdoms.^[28][29][30] The migration of the Nicarao has been linked to the collapse of the important central-Mexican cities of Teotihuacan and Tula, as well as the Classic Maya collapse. The Nicarao settled throughout western Nicaragua, inhabiting Rivas, Jinotega, Chinandega, Nueva Segovia, Masaya, Madriz, Matagalpa, Esteli, Leon, Granada and Managua. In addition the Nicarao controlled Tiger Lagoon, Lake Xolotlan, Lake Cocibolca, and the islands of Ometepe and Zapatera.^{[19][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]} The Nicarao also settled in Bagaces, Costa Rica after displacing the Huetar people who were already there, resulting in tribal warfare between the Nahuas and the Huetares which lasted until Spanish arrival.^[38][39]

The Nicarao referred to their land as Nicānāhuac which means "here lies Anahuac" in Nahuatl and is a combination of the words Nican (here),^[40] and Ānāhuac, which in turn is a combination of the words atl (water) and nahuac, a locative meaning "surrounded". Therefore the literal translation of Nicanahuac is "here surrounded by water".^{[41][42][43][44][45]} This was a geographical endonym that referred to the large bodies of water that surrounded the land the Nicarao inhabited, the Pacific Ocean, lakes Cocibolca and Xolotlan, and the rivers and lagoons.^[46][47] Similarly, the city of Tenochtitlan which the Aztecs founded was also surrounded by water, and referred to the land as Cemanahuac.^[48][49] This establishes a clear connection between pre-Columbian Mexico and Nicaragua.

As a Mesoamerican group, the Nicarao shared many blended cultural traits with both indigenous North American and Mexican belief systems as well as their Toltec parent tribe, including an identical Toltec calendar, similar pottery and effigies, similar organizational treaties, the use of screenfold books, the worship of the Great Spirit and closely related sky deities, Nagual mysticism, the practice of animal and Tonal spirituality, and expertise in medical practice.^{[50][51][52][53][54]}

After the Nicarao split from the Pipils and migrated further south into what is now western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica, they seized most of the fertile lands in the area through warfare, and displaced many neighboring tribes including the Cacaoperas, the Chorotegas, and the Huetares.^[38][39][55] In addition the Nicarao enslaved and captured Cacaoperas for human sacrifice and further displaced them from Jinotega, Esteli, Boaco, and parts of Matagalpa, particularly the Sebaco valley, one of the most fertile areas in Nicaragua which the Nicarao still inhabit today.^{[56][33][57][37]} Conquistador and historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, documented that in a Nicarao market, a Cacaopera slave can be bought for 100 cacao beans, a Cacaopera prostitute for 5 cacao beans, a rabbit for 10 cacao beans, and dog meat for 20 cacao beans.^[58][59] At some point, the Nicarao separated and formed their own chiefdoms.^[28][29][60] In 1501 CE, after the Tlahtoani of Tenochtitlan Ahuizotl sent groups of pochtecas to explore and establish relations with the indigenous peoples of Central America, trade relations developed between the Mexica and the Nicarao.^[61] Commercial exchange between Tenochtitlan and the chiefdoms of Nicanahuac continued to flourish after Moctezuma II ascended to the throne of Tenochtitlan as Mexica merchants traded and thrived within Nicarao territory.^[61]

Although the Nicarao displaced rival tribes through warfare, they also developed trade relations with smaller tribes, maintaining hegemony over western Nicaragua through military superiority and commerce.^[12] In addition, non-Nahua minorities lived and thrived within several Nahua chiefdoms alongside the Nahua majority, such as the Chibchan minorities in Kwawkapolkan and Kakawatan in modern-day Rivas, the Chorotega minority in Masatepek in modern-day Masaya, and the Chorotega minority in Xinotepek in modern-day Carazo.^[62] Furthermore, many Chibchan peoples across the Intermediate Area were heavily influenced by the Nicaraos, such as the Huetares' use of the Nicarao calendar, their adoption of the Nahua pantheon, and their ability to speak the Nawat language which was documented by Spanish conquistadors.^[38][39] This shows that despite their tribal division, and being surrounded by Isthmo-Colombian peoples, the Nicarao were a successful civilization in their own right that shared great cultural, economic, religious, and political influence across southern Mesoamerica and the Isthmo-Colombian Area.

Although they are Nahuas, they're erroneously known by the exonym "Nicarao", which was not what the Nahuas of Nicaragua called themselves as it was a term imposed on them by the conquistadors, in addition to the fact that the letter "r" does not exist in the Nawat language.^[41] They are sometimes referred to as Nicanahuacanos (people of Nicanahuac) by Nicaraguan historians.^[63][18] The etymology of the term "Nicarao" most likely originated as a shortened and hispanicized form of "Nicānāhuac", the name used by the Nicaraos to refer to western Nicaragua. This is evident in the Spaniards use of the root Nica in "Nicarao" which derives from Nahuatl Nican.^[40][41][18]

Out of all the Central American dialects of Nawat, the dialect spoken by the Nicarao was found to be the most similar to central-Mexican Nahuatl.^[64] Furthermore, Nicaraguan Nawat was found to be more closely related to Nawat from Chiapas than to Salvadoran Nawat.^[65][66] It is also evident that the Nicarao were able to understand Nahuatl, as the Spaniards were able to communicate with Nicaraos they encountered in Nahuatl through their Tlaxcallan translators. Nahuatl was used as a lingua franca at that time because many indigenous groups in Mesoamerica could speak Nahuatl. This culminated an environment where different indigenous groups with unintelligible languages could communicate with each other.

The Nawat language went extinct in Nicaragua in the late 1800s, and was last spoken on Ometepe Island and in the departments of Rivas and Masaya.^[67]

According to Spanish conquistadors Gil González Dávila and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, who was also a historian, the Nicarao had multiple chiefdoms that were independent from one another.^[28][29][68] In addition, although these chiefdoms shared the same language, culture, and ethnicity, they were never unified under a single political entity as Kuskatan was in present-day El Salvador.

• Kwawkapolkan
• Kakawatan
• Tekwantepek
• Masatepek
• Xinotepek
• Teswatlan
• Chinantlan

The most powerful Nahua chiefdom was Kwawkapolkan, which means "place of capulín trees" in Nawat.^[69] It's a combination of the Nawat words Kwawit (tree),^[70][71] kapolin (capulín),^[72][73] and -kan (a locative meaning "place of"). Kwawkapolkan was also the southernmost Nahua chiefdom that extended from Rivas down to Bagaces in central Guanacaste in Costa Rica. Kwawkapolkan bordered it's ally Kakawatan in Rivas, the Kingdom of Nicoya which was a powerful Mesoamerican civilization in the Nicoya Peninsula, and smaller Chibchan tribes in other parts of Rivas as well as the Huetares and Voto people of northern Costa Rica.^[38][39]

Kakawatan was another Nahua chiefdom located in what is now the Rivas department of southwestern Nicaragua.^[68] The Nahuas of Kakawatan were known as kakawatecos, meaning "people of Kakawatan".^[58] The chief of Kakawatan was Weymak, who according to several sources, was Macuilmiquiztli's cousin.^[74][75] This could explain the close relations between Kwawkapolkan and Kakawatan. Weymak also had a warrior son named Eskuat, though he wasn't mentioned by Spanish sources again.^[68] Before and during spanish contact, Kakawatan and Kwawkapolkan had a military alliance and were in a constant state of war with the Chorotegas, the Kingdom of Nicoya, and later fought together against the Spanish.^[76][68] The name Kakawatan is a combination of the Nawat words kakaw (Cacao),^[21] at (water), and -tan (locative suffix meaning near/place of/with).^[77] Therefore Kakawatan translates to "place with abundant cacao water", referring to chocolate drinks, one the most important aspects of Nicarao culture.^[78][79] This tradition is still practiced in the communities of Rivas among the descendants of the Nahuas both indigenous and mestizos alike.^[80]

Tekwantepek was a militarily strong chiefdom located in present-day Managua, and was one of the last chiefdoms to fall to the conquistadors and their central-Mexican allies.^[58][81] The etymology is a combination of the Nawat words tēkwani (jaguar),^[21] and tepek (hill),^[77] which translates to "jaguar hill" or "hill of jaguars". The city of Ticuantepe in Managua is likely named after this chiefdom.

Masatepek was located in what is now Masaya in central west Nicaragua, and was in close proximity to the chiefdoms of Xinotepek and Tekwantepek. The Nahuas of Masatepek coexisted with the Chorotegas who also inhabited the area. The name Masatepek is a combination of the Nawat words Masat (deer),^[21] and -tepek (hill). The literal translation of Masatepek is "deer hill".^[77] The Nahuas of Masatepek inhabited Nindiri, Niquinohomo, Monimbó, and Masatepe which is named after this chiefdom.^[82]

Xinotepek was located in what is now Carazo of central west Nicaragua, and was in close proximity to Masatepek, and Tekwantepek. The Nahuas of Xinotepek also coexisted with the Chorotegas who inhabited much of the land now part of the Carazo department. The etymology of the first half of the name is unknown, however the second half of the name comes from the Nawat word -tepek (hill),^[77] The city of Jinotepe is named after this chiefdom.

Teswatlan was located in northwestern Nicaragua, specifically Chinandega.^[83][84] Teswatlan means "Place of Tezhuate". Fernandez de Oviedo described Teswatlan as a chiefdom filled with maize, in addition to Akatekwtli's son ascending to the throne after his death during Spanish conquest.^[85][86]

Chinantlan was the northernmost Nicarao chiefdom that bordered the Lencas of southwestern Honduras, the pre-Columbian relations between the Lencas and the Nicaraos are unknown. Chinantlan was located in Chinandega and had close relations with Teswatlan. Chinantlan means "place surrounded by reeds" in Nahuatl. A Nicarao from Chinantlan was called a Chinantecatl meaning "person from Chinantlán".^[87][88][89]

At the time of Spanish arrival, Gil González Dávila traveled to western Nicaragua with a small army of just over 100 men made up of conquistadors and their Tlaxcalteca allies. They explored the fertile western valleys and were impressed with the Nahua and Oto-manguean civilizations for the vast amounts of food they had in addition to their flourishing markets, permanent temples, and trade network.^[68][90][91] Despite the good first impression however, Dávila referred to the Nahuas and Chorotegas as los rojos ("the reds" in Spanish), and their children as rojitos ("little red kids" in Spanish) which were derogatory terms based on skin color.^[68] Eventually, Dávila met with the most powerful ruler in pre-Columbian Nicaragua named Macuilmiquiztli, meaning "Five Deaths" in the Nahuatl language, and conversed with him through Tlaxcalan translators.^{[92][93][94][95]} Macuilmiquiztli governed the Nahua chiefdom of Kwawkapolkan, not far from the modern town of Rivas,^[96] Macuilmiquiztli initially welcomed the Spanish and their Tlaxcalteca allies. However, Dávila and his army used the opportunity to gather gold and baptize some of the Nahuas along the way, much to Macuilmiquiztli's disapproval. When Dávila demanded the now skeptical Macuilmiquiztli, as well as chiefs Weymak and Diriangén who were also present, to be baptized, to renounce their pagan beliefs, and to hand over the rest of their gold and jewellery, they refused.^[68] Realizing the threat that the Spanish imposed, Macuilmiquiztli, as well as the Chorotegas, waged war against the invaders, and Nahua and Chorotega warriors forced Dávila and his men to retreat to Panama.^[97][98][99] This set the stage for the war that became the Spanish conquest of Nicaragua in 1524 CE, when Nicaragua was invaded on all sides by several Spanish forces, each led by a conquistador. González Dávila was authorized by royal decree to invade from the Caribbean coast of Honduras. Francisco Hernández de Córdoba at the command of the governor of Panama invaded from Costa Rica. Pedro de Alvarado at the command of Hernán Cortés, came from Guatemala through San Salvador and Honduras.^[100]

Despite the enmity between the Nahuas and Chorotegas, Macuilmiquiztli and Diriangén made peace and agreed to team up against the Spanish and Tlaxcaltecas. This formed a triumvirate-style alliance between chiefs Macuilmiquiztli, Diriangén, and Weymak, all of whom fought together against the invaders with the military forces of their chiefdoms.^[101][102] Francisco Hernández de Córdoba fought directly against the alliance, and by 1525 the alliance had completely collapsed. Diriangén escaped the Spanish onslaught and eventually died between 1527-1529, Weymak was captured and executed in 1525 after the last of his Kakawatec forces were annihilated by the conquistadors and Tlaxcaltecas, and the fall of Kwawkapolkan in 1525 finalized their defeat.^[103][104] Macuilmiquiztli and Diriangén remain popular figures in Nicaraguan nationalism and anti-imperialism, so much so that The National Assembly of Nicaragua declared the two Indigenous leaders as national heroes.^[105] In addition, Macuilmiquiztli as well as Diriangén are credited with leading the resistance against the Spanish and Tlaxcaltecas, and are symbols of Indigenous resistance against imperialism. Furthermore, their alliance highlights a powerful lesson in teamwork between enemies who set aside their differences and came together to oppose a much greater threat.

After Spanish conquest the Nahua civilization in western Nicaragua came to a tragic end. The Nicarao suffered a devastating demographic and societal collapse from a combination of disease, war against the Spanish and their Tlaxcalteca allies, and being sold into slavery.^{[106][12][107]}

The Nicarao people migrated south from North America and central and southern Mexico over the course of several centuries from approximately 700 CE onwards. Around 1200 CE, the Nicarao split from the Pipil people and moved into what is now Nicaragua. The beginning of this series of migrations was likely to have been linked to the collapse of the great central-Mexican city of Teotihuacan, and later with the collapse of the Toltec city of Tula.^[108] The dating of Nicarao arrival in what is now Nicaragua has also been linked to the Classic Maya collapse, with the cessation of Maya influence in the region, and the rise of cultural traits originating in the Valley of Mexico.^[109] The Nicarao had a sizeable population concentrated in nucleated villages all over western Nicaragua and what is now northwestern Costa Rica.^[110][111] They displaced both the Chorotega and the Cacaopera that had previously settled the region; evidence shows some of their culture was integrated into their own.^[96][112] The Nicarao appear to have seized control of the most productive land around the western portions of Lake Nicaragua, Ometepe, and the Gulf of Fonseca.^[113] The area now covered by Rivas Department appears to have been conquered by the Nicarao shortly before the Spanish conquest.^[114][51]

A remnant Nahuat-speaking population existed as late as the mid-19th century, but the Nicarao as a tribal Confederation are now extinct.^[110] Today Nicaragua is estimated to have around 20,000 Nicarao people, though displaced by Spanish conquest. In Costa Rica the Nicarao population ranges from several hundred to 1000 and are primarily located in the Bagaces Canton, with smaller pockets inhabiting other parts of Guanacaste. Some of their practices and beliefs continue to survive among their descendants within the Nahua communities of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

At the time of contact with the Spanish, the Nicarao were governed from their capital at Quauhcapolca, near the modern town of Rivas. Other principal settlements included Ometepe, Asososca Lagoon (Managua), Mistega, Ochomogo, Oxmorio, Papagayo, Tecoatega, Teoca, Totoaca, and Xoxoyota.^[115]

Like most other Nahua groups, the Nicarao were agriculturalists, and cultivated maize, cacao, tomatoes, avocados, squash, beans, and chili.^{[116][78][117][79][118]} Modern Nicaraos continue to be mainly farmers and agriculturalists and contribute to the cultivation of countless fruits and crops. In the Masaya department, cocoa production continues to be dominated by the Nicaraos.^[31][119] Chocolate was fundamental to pre-Columbian Nicarao culture as it was drunk during special ceremonies in addition to cocoa beans being used as their currency.^[118]. Furthermore, Nicarao warriors were rationed cacao that could be added to water, this policy provided extra energy and sustainability to warriors due to cacao's caffeine stimulant, which gave the warriors an advantage in battle.^[120][121] The Nicarao also dined on various meats such as turkey, deer, iguana, mute dogs, and fish from the sea, rivers, lakes and lagoons.^[118][122] The Nicarao had elaborate markets and permanent temples indicating some level of expertise in architecture, which have since been completely destroyed by the Spanish.^[6][117] Many of the Nicarao were artisans with expertise in crafts such as pottery and goldsmithing.^[123] Tattoo artistry across the face and body was prized among the Nicarao, as observed by the Spanish and reflected in effigies and clay artwork they created; this trait was shared by neighboring Nicoyan tribes to the south as well as the Maya people to the north.^{[123][124][125]} Among the Nicarao, highly specialized tattoo artists were expert and lived by their skills.^[53] The Nicarao also practiced stonecraft, as evidenced by elaborate petroglyphs of spirals, murals and spiritual figures carved and painted onto stones in Ometepe; this was shared by the Chorotega and other pre-Columbian civilizations in the region.^[112]

Although not much is known about the military forces of Nicanahuac, the Nicarao did have a warrior tradition. Nicarao warriors wore long and thick padded cotton armor that extended down to their thighs and knees, fought with spears, atlatls, bow and arrows, clubs edged with stone blades, knives and daggers with obsidian blades, and macanas, a wooden sword edged with obsidian blades similar to the Aztec macahuitl.^[53][117]

Spanish chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, writing soon after the conquest, recorded that the Nicarao practised cranial modification, by binding the heads of young children between two pieces of wood. Archaeologists have unearthed pre-Columbian burials in the former Nicarao region with evidence of both cranial and dental modification.^[126] The Nicarao possessed a number of cultural traits in common with North American tribes as well as the Toltecs of central Mexico, including an identical calendar, the use of screenfold books, worship of the Great Spirit and a Toltec pantheon of deities such as sky spirits, animal spirits and Tonal mythology, Nagual mysticism, and treaties.^{[127][51][52]} They also, in common with their Mexican cousins from Aztec culture, practiced ritual confession, and the volador (flying men) ritual.^[128][129]

Despite their massive decrease in population and the loss of their native language in the aftermath of Spanish conquest, the Nicarao, and their culture, are still an integral part of Nicaraguan identity as they formed the ethnic foundation of the country.^[12] Most western Nicaraguans have Nahua ancestry, as proven through DNA analysis.^[130][131] Towns, lakes, islands, and volcanoes bear their place names.^[132] The etymology of the country's name derives from their native language.^{[41][133][42][43][44][45]} Nicaraguan Spanish has been heavily influenced by their native language.^{[134][135][136][137][138][139]} Nicaraguan cuisine such as the nacatamal and indio viejo both of which originated from the Nicarao has also cemented itself in the legacy of Nicaraguan gastronomy.^{[140][141][142][143]}