According to the United Nations, human smuggling is defined as "the procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit, of the illegal entry of a person into a State Party of which the person is not a national or a permanent resident."^[1] While flows of migration have come and gone throughout history, current numbers surrounding human movement are unprecedented. Geographic, economic, and demographic factors create distinct migration patterns and routes over time. In 2020, there were 281 million international migrants across the globe, making up 3.6% of the global population. Though this is a small percentage of the total population, the number of individuals residing in states outside of where they were born has more than tripled since 1970.^[2] Looking at the most recent migration events in the Mediterranean, crossing the sea has been a primary method smugglers use to enter migrants into Europe. Since the 2015 Migration Crisis, the Central Mediterranean region has been declared the deadliest migration route in the world. Nearly 28,000 irregular migrants have arrived in Europe in 2024, with over 11,000 crossing the Mediterranean Sea in the process.^[3]

More than 1.3 million migrants reached European shores in 2015 alone, and more than 3,500 individuals died attempting the journey. The number of deaths is likely much higher, as there are presumably a large number of individuals whose bodies were never recovered from the sea. More than 75% of these migrants were fleeing conflict present in Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq. The major contributing factors of this can be traced to 2011 with the beginning of the Arab Spring and large-scale wars in the Middle East.^[4] In 2016, more than 1.3 million individuals applied for asylum in the EU, Norway, and Switzerland, which more than doubled the previous record that was set in 1992.^[5] 

The majority of migrants use similar methods and routes to enter Europe. One of the most frequented routes involves a sea crossing from Libya to Italy, during which safety is not guaranteed. Since 1988, Over 20,000 individuals have died attempting to cross this portion of the Mediterranean.^[6] To shed light on the issue, officials have tried to gain insight into the operations and routes of smuggling networks that profit from the desire to reach Europe. Mediterranean migrant smuggling is estimated to be a multi-billion dollar underground market, which 90% of irregular arrivals into Europe are estimated to utilize.^[7]

There are several migration routes across the Mediterranean, and each presents its own challenges and dangers. The Western Mediterranean Route between Morocco and Spain has been a primary entry point for North African and Sub-Saharan migrants. However, there has been a decline in the use of this route due to the two countries implementing stricter enforcement measures. Migrants utilizing the Central Route depart from Libya and aim to reach the shores of Malta or southern Italy by boat. The Eastern Mediterranean Route has seen increased usage since 2015, particularly by individuals from war-torn countries like Syria and Afghanistan. Each method of arrival carries its own risks, but the Central Mediterranean Route stands out as the most deadly, claiming thousands of lives annually.^[8]

Within migrant communities, smuggling is often seen as a necessary means to reach safety and opportunity in Europe. Smugglers are portrayed as service providers, facilitating journeys that would otherwise be impossible for many to achieve on their own. The magnitude of Mediterranean migration is large, with over 100,000 individuals specifically utilizing the Central Mediterranean route each year. The majority of arrivals are adult men, though there has been an increase in the number of migrants who are unaccompanied minors. These individuals are primarily teenage boys, but a small number of young girls are also smuggled across these routes each year.^[8]

The profile of smugglers is diverse, ranging from local operatives to larger transnational networks that use loose agreements to facilitate cooperation between them. While the business is male-dominated, women also play significant roles in recruitment and logistical work. Fees for smuggling services vary based on factors such as citizenship, gender, age, and perceived economic status. The price of the journey ranges from only a few hundred euros to thousands per person. Smuggling operations in Libya alone generate hundreds of millions of Euros annually, highlighting the scale of this underground economic market across the Mediterranean.^[6]

Smuggling networks demonstrate adaptability and resilience in the face of increased enforcement efforts, and their intricacies are not often understood. These networks are highly flexible and work efficiently within an ever-changing market of individuals wishing to flee their origin countries. They are often made up of independent and family-based organizations that partner for short periods to complete their task. While some migrants hire smugglers to assist them for only a particularly difficult leg of their journey, others are hired to help every step of the way. Both are paid services relating to transportation, documentation forgery, and accommodation.^[6] The majority of migrants pay as they go, meaning that the final destination is not predetermined, and the direction and speed of their passage depend on how quickly they can pay for what smugglers require. Others finance in full within their origin country before the smuggler arranges the services needed to bring them to their desired destination. Those who survive the transport are often the ones who promote its continuation, as they will encourage friends and family to utilize similar methods to enter Europe.^[6]

A 2018 study highlights the decentralized nature of Mediterranean smuggling operations, particularly between Libya and the Italian island of Lampedusa. Wiretapped conversations unveiled a smuggling ring linking the Horn of Africa to Northern Europe, comprising 292 individuals. The majority of smugglers were male, with primary roles being “organizer” or “aide.” Payment systems lacked centralization, relying on informal money transfers. Migrant smuggling networks are also tied to many other organized crime rings, including human trafficking and money laundering. From the range of services offered, it is estimated that the annual turnover from smuggling reached EUR 3-6 billion in 2015 alone, but some believe the figure to be much higher.^[7] Decentralization of smuggling networks poses challenges for authorities, necessitating coordinated efforts, information sharing, land-based policies, and engagement with all countries along the route.^[9]

These sea crossings are fraught with danger, as migrants often pay in advance and must wait several long periods of waiting for often undisclosed reasons. During this time, migrants remain in hidden connection houses where they may face exploitation and violence without resources to aid them. If caught, detention centers in Libya specifically contain horrific and life-threatening conditions. If migrants make it to departure from shore, the journey across the sea is perilous. Often given minimal information about the risks involved, migrants face extreme danger from overcrowded and unseaworthy vessels, lack of food and water, and the possibility of becoming lost at sea.^[8]

Many world leaders have criticized Turkey for its lax policies against people smuggling.^[10] President of Greece Prokopis Pavlopoulos said "I have a strong fear that Turkish smugglers have the support of the authorities, in particular, border authorities who act like they have seen nothing."^[10] Other critics of the people-smuggling crisis in the Mediterranean say the issue continues due to European countries' nonuniform efforts to halt smugglers.^[11] Chairman of the Europa-Institut Christof Zellenberg stated "By inviting [people] in but closing all of the tracks, we are basically building a business model for traffickers."^[11] François Crépeau, United Nations Special Rapporteur, suggests "What is needed is for states to reclaim the mobility market from the hands of the smugglers through offering safe, legal, and cheap mobility solutions to the many, and to build an open but controlled mobility regime over a generation."^[12]

Waves of relocation will continue to appear in the future, so the need for policy reform surrounding Mediterranean Sea migrant smuggling remains a pressing matter. Events such as those in 2015 will only become more common as issues like climate change are increasing in urgency and propel individuals to search for better living conditions and economic prosperity.