The Mughal-Sikh Wars were a series of conflicts that took place between the Sikhs of Punjab and the Mughal Empire from 1621 to 1788. These wars resulted from religious, political, and territorial disputes, which fundamentally altered the balance of power in northern India.
The roots of the conflicts can be traced back to the early 17th century when Sikhism, under the leadership of its leaders known as Gurus, began asserting its distinct identity. The execution of Guru Arjan Dev in 1606 at the hands of Emperor Jahangir marked the beginning of Sikh resistance to Mughal supremacy. This slowly transformed into armed struggle over time, especially during the leadership of Guru Hargobind, who initiated the militarisation of the Sikh community.
The conflicts, which lasted for several decades, featured intermittent engagements and skirmishes. The Sikhs resistance was reinforced by the persecution of their religion under Emperor Aurangzeb's reign, when the Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed in 1675. The Sikhs' resistance against Mughal persecution reached a turning point in 1699 when they organized under the Guruship of Guru Gobind Singh to form the Khalsa, a martial order.
The decline of the Mughal Empire caused the Sikhs to shift from a defensive opposition strategy to one of territorial expansion. In Punjab and abroad, the Sikhs were able to take coordinated action against Mughal rule due to the establishment of Sikh misls. The conflict ultimately resulted in the fall of the Mughal Empire and the establishment of the Sikh Empire at the start of the 1800s under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
The fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, was martyred in 1606 under controversial circumstances during the rule of Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Historians have debated the cause behind his martyrdom. Some argue that it was politically motivated citing as reasons his alleged backing of Jahangir's rebel son Khusrau Mirza and also the growing influence of the Guru.[1][2]
Jahangir's memoirs, the Tuzk-e-Jahangiri, describes Arjan as a Hindu religious leader who had "captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners".[2]
Sikh tradition views Arjan's death as persecution by the Mughals, rooted in his refusal to pay a fine, alter sacred hymns, or convert to Islam.[3]
Accounts vary on whether he was tortured, executed, or drowned in the Ravi River.[2] Contemporary sources, such as Jesuit missionary Jerome Xavier and Dabistan-i Mazahib, describe his steadfastness during torture, with Xavier noting Sikh attempts to commute the sentence to a fine, which failed.[4]
His martyrdom is seen as a turning point that inspired Sikhs to militarize under his successor, Guru Hargobind.[5] Multiple narratives, including those involving Chandu Shah, attempt to explain or absolve Mughal responsibility but lack consistent evidence.[6][7]
Militarisation of Sikhism
Fresco of Guru Hargobind
The militarization of Sikhism began with Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh Guru, after the martyrdom of his father, Guru Arjan. Realizing the challenges ahead, Guru Hargobind initiated a new vision for the Sikh community.[8] At his succession ceremony, he requested Baba Buddha to adorn him with two swords, symbolizing Miri (worldly authority) and Piri (spiritual authority).[9]
These two swords represented the dual role of the Guru: protecting the oppressed and upholding righteousness on one hand, and nurturing spirituality and community welfare on the other.[9][10]
Guru Hargobind emphasized the need of having horses and weapons for self-defense and urged Sikhs to adopt a dual approach of prayer and preparation.[11] Thus, he established a small but trained force that expanded from a 52-man bodyguard to a well-coordinated army with infantry, artillery, and cavalry.[12] Faith-driven, many followed him, seeing their work as a religious obligation and an opportunity for spiritual atonement.[11]
Nishan Sahib flag of the Akal Sena during the time of Guru Hargobind
By constructing the Lohgarh, the Fortress of Steel, in Amritsar, he fortified Sikh fortifications. He also embraced sovereign symbols like a personal flag and a nagara (war drum), which served as a community rallying cry. Directly across from the Harmandir Sahib, he built the Akal Takht in 1606.[13] The Akal Takht became the seat of Sikh temporal power, where Guru Hargobind administered justice, accepted sacrifices, and led the populace, while the Harmandir remained the site of spirituality.[14]
Imprisonment of the Guru
In 1609, on the pretext that the fine imposed on Guru Arjan had not been paid,[15] Jahangir put the then 14-year-old Guru Hargobind in prison in Gwalior Fort. Considerable variations (between two to twelve years) are reported about the length of his stay in prison. The Persian sources like Dabestan-e Mazaheb show an extended period of imprisonment including 1617–1619 and Mughal surveillance even after his release.[15][16]
The reasons for his release are debated among scholars. Some argue that by 1611 Jahangir reverted to Akbar's tolerant policies, having consolidated his rule and distanced himself from Naqshbandi court officials. Others suggest that Jahangir found Guru Hargobind harmless and ordered his release.[15]
During his imprisonment, Indian rajas who were being held as hostages came to like Guru Hargobind. He asked for their release along with his own and stood surety for their loyalty. Jahangir agreed, and Guru Hargobind wore a cloak with 52 hems which showed the kings' freedom as they followed him out of the fort.[17][18]
Period of Peace
After the previous strains, Emperor Jahangir showed a conciliatory attitude toward Guru Hargobind. According to Sikh tradition, Jahangir turned over Chandu Shah, who was partially responsible for the execution of Guru Arjan and the imprisonment of Guru Hargobind, to the Sikhs. At their hands, Chandu Shah was eventually killed.[19] On the site that was later bestowed upon him, Guru Hargobind built a new town, which came to be called Sri Hargobindpur.[19]
Begin of Hostitilities
Emperor Jahangir became ill in 1627 and passed away on November 7 at Rajauri. Asaf Khan endorsed Shah Jahan after his death, but Nur Jahan backed her son-in-law, Shahryar, as monarch.[20] After defeating Shahryar, Asaf Khan called for Shah Jahan from the Deccan. On February 24, 1628, Shah Jahan took the throne and put his brothers and nephews to death to solidify his position of power.[20] The friendly relations between the Sikhs and the Mughal Empire deteriorated shortly after his ascension, and open animosity emerged.[21]
The Mughals and Shivalik Hill kings were forced to retreat and the Sikhs fought bravely along with Baba Ajit Singh and those Sikhs gained martyrdom excluding Baba Ajit Singh.
Seeing the complex situation in Malwa, Bahadur Shah asked Guru Gobind Singh for help. The Guru sent Bhai Dharam Singh to fight with 300 soldiers. Azam Shah killed by Guru Gobind Singh and Isha Khan Main.
Establishment of Sikh rule from Lahore to the sanctum sanctorum of Delhi
Sucha Nand killed by Banda Singh Bahadur and thousands of Mughal soldiers killed by Sikhs and those people who are involved in martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh younger sons (Saka Sirhind affair)
