Gaṇikā or ganika (Sanskrit: गणिका) were female courtesans in early Ancient India, with their earliest reference in the Vedic period. Mentioned in the Kamasutra, Gaṇikās were also dubbed as "courtesans de luxe," this was how Indians in early Ancient India, separated them from veshyas, who were also courtesans.^[1]Moti Chandra, an Indian scholar who suggested that "In the hierarchy of courtesans, the kumbhadasi occupied the lowest place and the Gaṇikās the highest."^[2] This suggests that Gaṇikās, were not merely prostitutes or normal courtesans, but they were considered "premium courtesans." It is similar to how there is a difference between an Oiran and a Geisha.

According to the Kamasutra, for veshyas or any courtesans to become recognized as a Gaṇikā, they had to master and become well-versed in the 64 arts of Kalā.^[3][4] After earning the title of Gaṇikā, they were revered for being the most virtuous, most beautiful and luxurious courtesan of all courtesans. They were even on par with the princesses of early India. They would use these arts to entertain kings, princes, and other wealthy patrons on religious and social occasions.^[5] With that said, they were the pride and joys of the Kingdom, as they were honored by the King and nobles, praised by the public and every courtesan strived to be a Gaṇikā.

However, due to the difficulty in reading Sanskrit, it becomes difficult to separate veshyas from Gaṇikā.^[6][7] It becomes even more difficult with English translations of Sanskrit, as the boundaries between "courtesans", "prostitutes" and even "dancers" are not differentiated properly. This differentiation becomes even more so difficult, since Gaṇikās are mentioned in different contexts in different Sanskrit literature. Gaṇikās are mentioned in Sanskrit literature under the context of Hinduism, which focuses on the four goals of human life or puruṣārthas, as well as other texts which falls under other religions such as Buddhism and Jainism.^[8]

Vātsyāyana dedicated Book Six of the Kamasutra to discuss on the topic of Courtesans. Below are the following chapters in which appears in Book Six: Courtesans.

Book Six: Courtesans^[9]

Chapter	Title	Page numbers
1	Deciding on a Friend, Eligible Lover and Ineligible Lover, and How to Get a Lover	pp. 131 - 136
2	How to Give a Beloved What He Wants	pp. 137 - 142
3	Ways to Get Money from A Man, Signs That His Passion is Dying and How to Get Rid of Him	pp. 142 - 127
4	How to Get Back Together with an Ex-lover	pp. 147 - 151
5	How to Weight Different Kinds of Profits	pp. 151 - 155
6	Ways to Calculate Gains, Losses, Consequences and Doubts, and Types of Courtesans	pp. 155 - 160

Based on Doniger and Kakar translation alone, it is unknown whether the courtesans they refer to in the chapters are veshyas or gaṇikās. The only instances where gaṇikās are specifically mentioned is when they are referred to as "courtesan de luxe."^[10] It is clear in the final chapter of Book Six, gaṇikās are specifically mentioned in a list, "The servant woman who carries water, the servant girl, the promiscuous woman, the loose woman, the dancer, the artist, the openly ruined woman, the woman who lives on her beauty, and the courtesan de luxe: those are the types of courtesans."^[11]

Written by Yajnavalkya, it is a compilation or handbook focused on the laws and conducts which governs individuals social and ethical behaviour in society. However, unlike the other texts, as far as we know, Yaknavalkya sheds light on the differences between the classes of courtesans and more or less has divided them into distinctive groups.^[12] Such as:

1. Vesyas are considered to be public women who openly entertain people, in which they do not earn or a lot of income
2. Dasi which are slave women and Savarini which are fallen woman, they can be taken as concubines and live in the man's house
3. Gaṇikās are courtesans which are handsomely paid for their services

Through this categorisation, Yajnavalkya makes it clear, and differently from Vatsyayana that vesyas are broadly more on the spectrum of prostitutes. In contrast, ganikas are on the other side, that being the courtesans. Besides their mastery of the 64 arts, the key difference between the two and being beautiful and virtuous is probably the amount of income earned.^[13]

Another vital book from early Ancient India, is the Arthasastra, written by Chanakya, on the know-how of politics and military strategies a king or anyone needed to know or interested in political science, it also does give its own insight on the position on Gaṇikās and the relationship courtesans have with politics.

Chanakya, also known as Kautilya devoted a chapter in Book II of the Arthasastra to discuss the duties of ganikadhyaka, who is the supreme of courtesans and is like a supervisor who enforces the rules regarding courtesans. It was vitally important for other shastra (treaties) to be talking about Gaṇikās, because courtesans, were not just prostitutes there for the purpose of sexual pleasure but were state recognised and appointed institutionalised positions of the court in the Gupta Empire.^[14]

According to Kautilya, Gaṇikās earned around 1,000 Karshapana, and their duties mostly constituted of attending to the King, to his every needs such as fanning him or fetching water for him. On certain occasions, if a King wishes her to entertain men, she must do so if not this would result in a punishment of either whips or a heavy fine. Furthermore, Gaṇikās earned part of their income from taxpayers or the king's treasury.^[15]

Gaṇikās in the Arthasastra suggests that even though the courtesans were highly prized and even paid well, they were also restricted to their specific duties as they could not freely follow their own path, and any trade or deals made were very strictly regulated. Even so, they were important not only because of their economic contributions, but mostly and mainly because they were considered as necessary towards men to fulfil their desires and provisions were specifically made to establishing housing for courtesans near military camps.^[16][17]

On a ritual handbook and a compilation of sectarian lore which was compiled by the Saivas and Vaisnava in 500 to 1500 CE. The majority context of this compilation was focused on the knowledge and processes relevant to priests, but it also included the participation of women, particularly the Devadasi.

Many scholars have studied the Agama, however Leslie Orr, a scholar who is professionalised in the studies of religious and social history of medieval Tamil Nadu, and women in pre-colonial South Asia opened new possibilities in which gaṇikās may have been involved in these texts.^[18] She studied and collected several passages and Sanskrit texts that doesn't necessarily suggests women involved in these rituals are "temple women" but may also refer to prostitutes who were not involved with the temple.^[19]

Instead, another possibility of the identities of these women, can be found in the Therīgāthā. It is a text that is part of the Buddhist canon, and it includes poems of nuns who were previously prostitutes. It is unknown why they would give up a life of prostitution or a profession as a courtesan, especially if they earn money from it. However, a possibility could be because due to old age, as courtesans are pride over their beauty and youth, once they are old, they have no use to men. Thus, instead of doing nothing, they could turn to a life as a nun and work in the temple.^[20]

A work and compilation by Rajashekhara who was a Sanskrit poet, suggests that gaṇikās and princesses were excellent poets and this must be because they needed to master the 64 arts of Kalā, and how they are recognised away from veshyas and non-courtesans.^[21] In that sense, courtesans did not only exist to provide sexual pleasure for men in ancient India, as they were required to master all these fine arts to prove themselves as viable courtesans, but that should also be paid for their services. Contrary to the stereotypical and contemporary view of prostitutes, courtesans or specifically ganikas suggests they were more refined and skilled in many arts, instead of simply the art of sex.^[22]

What is familiar so far is the hierarchy and categorization of courtesans in India. This is also evident in the Natysastra which was written by Bharata, a Brahman sage, around 2nd century BCE, where ganikas instead of just being a courtesan was turned into a type of heroine or an idealized woman because they "should have the qualities of light-heartedness, exaltedness and expertise in dance, music and other arts."^[23] This idealized view of courtesans skills in the theatrics is circulated amongst the ancient Indian civilization. As such, this resulted in many courtesans being the stars of many Sanskrit plays such as Meghadūta, The Farce of the Pious Courtesan, King Vikramaditya and the Courtesan and The Ocean of Story.^[24]

Also known as The Little Clay Cart, is a famous Sanskrit play, written by Śūdraka. It is widely known and has even been adapted into a film, known as Utsav. In this play, the youthful courtesan known as Vasantasenā, is rich and famous and is pursued by a married Cārudatta, who is also a father.^[25][26] The role of the Gaṇikā here, or the courtesan is dramatized and is introduced into a different medium compared to the treatise. Additionally, there is a narrational aim to turn the Gaṇikā into a kulavadhü (wife), this transformation is further complicated with Cārudatta's son refusing to acknowledge Vasantasenā because she didn't wear his mother's jewelry.^[27]

In this play, Gaṇikās were not simply courtesans and are restricted to this role after taking it. There is a shift of roles for Vasantasenā, from being a courtesan to a wife, and taking one the role of a step-mother. It is interesting to see this process and direction a Gaṇikās can discover, because the treatise so far have only identified the roles of Gaṇikā play in the big schema of men, instead of how their role could signify more, instead of fulling man's desire in a patriarchal society. Also, as Shalini Shah, a scholar, states that Vasantasenā, herself goes through a psychological and symbolical change because she forsake her jewels (and therefore her pride as a courtesan) to Cārudatta's son, by placing them in his toy clay cart, hence the name.^[28]

The Jataka tales is a body of text containing literature that is native to Indians who are mainly interested in the stories on the births and rebirths of Gautama Buddha. However, scholars like Monika Saxena suggests that Gaṇikās were often mentioned in the text, as they were called "nagara-sobhani or nagaramandana (ornaments of the city)" and like the ornaments they wear, for example necklaces and earrings, Gaṇikās were like accessories to ancient India and helped to beautify it.^[29]

Pride is addressed in these texts in relation to Ganika, because of their mastery of the arts such as dancing and music. The citizens of ancient India during the Gupta period were proud of these courtesans and many women following the path of courtesan, strive to follow the ways of the Ganika because it is seen as the "ideal". Despite being a text focused on the Buddha, it makes many references to the types of beautiful women and the skills they need, such as the knowledge on the different branches of music and dancing, as this was important for royal entertainments.^[30]

One of the early texts that highlights and allows us insights into the reasons for the prestige of gaṇikās is the Mulasarvastivada. As the term gana means to be in a group and to associate with, by adding a feminine suffix which is ika, the word Gaṇikā is derived. The text further highlights this through a narrative of Amrapali who tried to understand how gana works in Gaṇikā.^[31]

Amrapali is famous because she was more than just a Gaṇikā, she is celebrated and given the title of nagarvadhu (royal courtesan). This was because during an assembly with the nobles, princes and the King, they all decided that she was too good of a woman to belong to one man, and so she earned the title Striratna (jewel of woman), basically suggesting that she was the crème de la crème and she was to be enjoyed by the gana.^[32]

In the Jain literature, ganikas are well known and are extremely respected by the kings and is known to be the jewel of the city and almost every large city had their own Gaṇikā.^[33] Similar to the other texts in Hinduism, the gaṇikās are paid handsomely for their services and that is how they are recognized away from veshyas. The similarity between the two is that they both are women who are open and accessible to all members of gana, and to gain access to gaṇikās, men would need to pay a fee to them, and in a sense, gaṇikās are valued based on how much they charge. Whilst veshyas also sell their physical charms but not their cultural and intellectual skills as they have not yet mastered the 64 arts.^[34]

Due to many different interpretations of the term Gaṇikā, this leads to the word itself losing its original meaning, and therefore, subjective. Ludwik Sternbach, an Indologist, in his compilation on texts about courtesans which he translated from Sanskrit, was extensive detailed research of courtesans mentioned in all Sanskrit literature, however, he also did not make a clear distinction between the different types of courtesans, or at least between veshyas and ganikas. This is possibly due to the difficulty of translating Sanskrit, as well as the lack of information to really differentiate the two.^[35] With so many interpretations of the word Gaṇikās, and how they are represented, as well as simply defining them as "courtesans", their significance may or may not be undermined. But at least, we understand that in every literature on courtesans, they are not our modern-day prostitutes that are solely paid for sex, but are cultural entertainers.

• Social

Gaṇikās were mostly famous during the reign of the Gupta Empire, as this was the golden age of when the ideas of the court and courtliness was established and so was the position of courtesans. They also did exist around the time of the Mauryan empire, but it is unknown if there are any existing sources or works studied by scholars.

So far there has been no recording of the first Gaṇikās in any sources or scholarly works, instead their history is rich and is been based on the current Sanskrit texts that has already been translated and studied by scholars. She is clearly recognized for her professionalism and identity in the working class, but where is placed in the working class level is unknown and unclear. As she is part of the working class, but she was also vital to the state and renumerated for her services to the King. Nitin Bora, a scholar suggested that a Gaṇikā social position could be lower than a doorkeeper or the most rich and powerful person in the state or city.^[36]

Even in the profession of Gaṇikās there were level of hierarchies and categories. Not only were Gaṇikās part of the category of courtesans, they also had their own subsets: uttama, Madhyama, and Kanishta. The three of them were segregated based on their physical attributes and working skills, as this made it easier to properly renumerate them. As the basis for earning the title of Gaṇikās was to master the 64 arts, there is a need to further segregate the Gaṇikās when there more of them based on their level of skills in singing, dancing and playing musical instruments.^[37]

• Economic

Like many businesses that deals with trade and forms the economy of a city or country, Gaṇikās were the same in the sense that their job as a courtesan, was similar to being self-employed and that she was her own business, and her body and her cultural services were her commodities.

From the ganika's point of view, the sole motive for joining her profession was pecuniary gain. The term used and discussed at length in Kuttanimatta is ratishilpa. Thus, it was skill, not just beauty and charm, which enabled her to secure her means of livelihood. One might say that the body was treated as a legitimate tradeable commodity.

— Monika Saxena, Associate Professor in History of University of Delhi (2023)^[38]

This paints a picture that gaṇikās are empowered because they are taking their own lives by the reins and supporting themselves. Her chief objective above all else was monetary gain, and as such their clients were mostly or rather had to be wealthy and generous. However, at the same time, the Gaṇikās must not let the man know that pleasuring him was because of a material gain. As this may bruised the man's ego because initially they would expect gaṇikās to be into him, because he is "the man", instead of his wealth.

How much a Gaṇikās should charge will be based on several factors such as her social status (her lineage and her family standing), where her establishment is located, and the quality of both her business and the neighborhood, the customs of the region she lives in or has lived at, the time of the year, the habits of her clients, her worth, her cultural accomplishments in relation to her competitors (other local courtesans).^[39] So, a Gaṇikās charge can really vary but on the surface level, it looks like any business in modern day is operated.

• Cultural

Gaṇikās were the cultural entities during the Gupta period. Because of their mastery in all the 64 arts, they were considered like an "all-rounder."

The ganikas were generally more educated and better skilled in the arts than the married women, and the nagarakas, though they had devoted wives at home, as the ideal of a waife drawn by Vatsyayana shows, were attracted by the intellectual and artistic qualities of the educated ganika.

— Priya Darshini, in "Status of the Gaṇikās in the Gupta Period: Change or Continuity?" (2003)^[40]

Praised by society and loved for their skills in arts and culture, they were aesthetic beings who refined the culture of Ancient India. They were literally always and must be mentioned and participated in the arts such as performances at festivals or were the main characters of plays. This may be why they could also be considered as "Dancing Girls" because they did dance, but they also did many other things, so only focusing on one of their skills would undermine the rest of the 63 arts. Gaṇikās are also prided because not only were they cultural entities, but also cultural benefactors, who when have sufficient money, instead of spending the money to ornament and beautify themselves further, they would spend on expanding their influence through the erection of temples, gardens or bridges, and this only made society love them more because they were giving back to the community, as much as they were taking from the men.^[41]

The decline of the term Gaṇikās ended when the Gupta empire had fallen. As the term Gaṇikās fell, so came the rise of another term for courtesans, which are known as Tawaifs. The difference between Tawaifs andGaṇikās are that Tawaifs are Islamic courtesans that rose to fame during the Mughal Empire and during the British Colonial Rule.

Alternatively, instead of a decline, they could have simply assimilated into the new term given to them. As the term Tawaifs existed prior, but belonged to the Arabic and Persian language. Tawaifs definition or translation were closer to "Dancing girls", but of course as the courtly culture rise, a proper term was needed and then they were translated into courtesans."^[42]Tawaifs then became the generic term for "Dancing Girls", and even used more often for "Courtesans" than gaṇikās or veshyas.

A possibly early depiction of a Ganika is the ancient Pataliputra sculpture, also known as Didarganj Yakshi statue. As Doris Meth Srinivasan, a historian of Indological studies and writer suggests:

I propose that an ancient Pataliputra sculpture represents an image of a royal Ganika. A beauteous female image, carved in the environs of the Mauryan capital, is imbued with the characteristics that mark her as a Ganika, possibly the chief Ganika or the pratiganika, attached to the imperial court.

— Doris Meth Srinivasan, historian of Indological studies.^[43]

The statue itself, even though found in 1917 in Didarganj, India is still being investigated on her identity. Her name was only given because of the "typical" traits she gave off. Yaksi being a name for a fertility figure, as the statue fits the characteristics of having large breasts, curved hips and a thin waist.^[44]

Although in terms of figure such as its thin waist and large breasts, it fits the category of being a Yakshi, but the most important accessory which may deviate her from being a Yakshi is her hand fan. Her hand fan, which Srinivasan and other art historians, Frederick Asher and Walter Spink suggested that is a key accessory for courtesans.^[45]

The hand fan, which is also quite a common accessory for courtesans in other cultures. For example, the Japanese "Courtesan with Fan and Koto" by Chōbunsai Eishi 鳥文斎栄之.^[46] Another example would be the Chinese "Courtesans with fan and flute" possibly by Zhang gui, found in 1916 to 1919.^[47] Despite their vast difference in time periods, it shows how courtesans and fans go hand-in-hand. Especially since gaṇikās who attended the king, had duties in fanning him, so having a hand fan would be natural for a courtesan to have.^[48] There is also many other attributes which this statute has pointing her to be a Gaṇikā.

The presence of the fly whisk, the reason for the slight bow, the general stylistic similarity with other pieces produced by royal ateliers in Pataliputra, the size of the figure, perhaps even the small tiara on the head, to say nothing of her exceptional beauty, all these become signposts designating the gaṇikā.

— Doris Meth Srinivasan, historian of Indological studies.^[49]

As much as Srinivasan argues the statue is possibly an early art form of the Gaṇikās, it would open a can of worms into questioning the identity other early Indian sculptures or art of female figures. It is already difficult for scholars to deduce the identity of one figure, imagine having to reexamine other figures, that would not only be tedious but also time-consuming because no one really knows the difference nor can ascertain the differences because in Ancient India, the culture was so pervasive in society that they mirrored each other, and the boundaries were so blurred, you can never really tell who is who unless they wore a nametag.

Although the term Gaṇikās is not very well known unlike Tawaifs who has been in numerous bollywood films, Gaṇikās may have appeared in:

• Utsav (1984)

• Bhagavadajjukam
• Mṛcchakatika

• Bargirl
• Dance bar
• Mujra
• Nautch
• Devdasi

• Almah
• Ca trù
• Geisha
• Gējì
• Gē-tòaⁿ
• Kisaeng
• Nagarvadhu
• Oiran
• Qiyan
• Shamakhi dancers
• Shirabyōshi
• Tayū

Also see, List of prostitutes and courtesans

• Sternbach, Ludwik (1953). Ganika-vrtta-sangrahah: or Texts on courtezans in classical Sanskrit. Compiled and presented by Ludwik Sternbach. Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute.
• Chandra, Moti (1973). The World Of Courtesans. Hindi Pocket Book.