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Flesh-footed shearwater
Conservation status
	; Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Procellariiformes
Family:	Procellariidae
Genus:	Ardenna
Species:	A. carneipes
Binomial name
	Ardenna carneipes; (Gould, 1844)

The flesh-footed shearwater sometimes known as the sable shearwater or feet-footed shearwater^[2] (Ardenna carneipes; formerly Puffinus carneipes) is a medium-large shearwater that mainly inhabits the Indo-Pacific. Its plumage is black. It has pale pinkish feet, and a pale bill with a distinct black tip. Together with the equally light-billed pink-footed shearwater, it forms the Hemipuffinus group, a superspecies which may or may not have an Atlantic relative in the great shearwater.^[3]^[4] These large shearwaters are among those that have been separated into the genus Ardenna.^[5] Recent genetic analysis indicates evidence of strong divergence between Pacific colonies relative to those in South and Western Australia, thought to be explained by philopatry and differences in foraging strategies during the breeding season.^[6]

A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2021 found very little genetic difference between the flesh-footed shearwater and the pink-footed shearwater (Ardenna creatopus). The authors of the study suggested that these two taxa might be better considered as conspecific.^[7]

The flesh-footed shearwater breeds in colonies, and has two main breeding areas; one in the southwest Pacific Ocean includes Lord Howe Island (22,654 pairs ^[8]), South Australia (about 1,800 pairs breeding on two islands^[9]) and northern New Zealand (13,000 pairs^[10]); the other population comprises no more than 36,000 pairs breeding on 42 islands along the coast of Western Australia from Cape Leeuwin to the Recherche Archipelago.^[11] Another 500 pairs breed on St Paul Island in the Indian Ocean. A record of birds on Astola Island of Pakistan in the Arabian Sea is unconfirmed. Recent evidence suggests populations are declining across much of the species' range.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17] The species was recently listed as near threatened in Australia ^[18] and nationally vulnerable in New Zealand,^[19] and has been recommended for listing under the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels.^[20] At the state level, the species is listed as vulnerable in Western Australia^[21] and New South Wales and rare in South Australia.

The species occurs as a (boreal) summer visitor in the North Pacific Ocean,^[22] where potentially large numbers are taken as bycatch in fisheries.^[23]^[24] The species also suffers from climate related impacts ^[25] and significant heavy metal contamination, the cause of which is not fully understood, but is likely due to the ingestion of significant quantities of plastic, which the birds mistake for food floating on the ocean surface.^[26]^[27]^[28]

References

^ BirdLife International (2019). "Ardenna carneipes". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22698188A155469189. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22698188A155469189.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
^ "Scientists propose changing bird's problematic name". NHM. 31 October 2024.
^ Austin, J.J. (1996) Molecular phylogenetics of Puffinus shearwaters: preliminary evidence from mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 6, 77-88
^ Austin, J.J., Bretagnolle, V., Pasquet, E., 2004. A global molecular phylogeny of the small Puffinus shearwaters and implications for systematics of the Little–Audubon's Shearwater complex. Auk 121: 847–864
^ Penhallurick, J., and Wink, M. (2004) Analysis of the taxonomy and nomenclature of the Procellariiformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Emu 104: 125-147
^ Lombal, Anicee J.; Wenner, Theodore J.; Lavers, Jennifer L.; Austin, Jeremy J.; Woehler, Eric J.; Hutton, Ian; Burridge, Christopher P. (February 2018). "Genetic divergence between colonies of Flesh-footed Shearwater Ardenna carneipes exhibiting different foraging strategies". Conservation Genetics. 19 (1): 27–41. doi:10.1007/s10592-017-0994-y. ISSN 1566-0621. S2CID 203717.
^ Ferrer Obiol, J.; James, H.F.; Chesser, R.T.; Bretagnolle, V.; González-Solís, J.; Rozas, J.; Welch, A.J.; Riutort, M. (2022). "Palaeoceanographic changes in the late Pliocene promoted rapid diversification in pelagic seabirds". Journal of Biogeography. 49 (1): 171–188. doi:10.1111/jbi.14291. hdl:2445/193747.
^ Lavers, Jennifer L.; Hutton, Ian; Bond, Alexander L. (January 2019). "Changes in technology and imperfect detection of nest contents impedes reliable estimates of population trends in burrowing seabirds". Global Ecology and Conservation. 17: e00579. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00579. hdl:10141/622450.
^ Lavers J. 2014. Population status and threats to Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in South and Western Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu164
^ Waugh, S. M., Tennyson, A., Taylor, G., and Wilson, K.-J. 2013. Population sizes of shearwaters (Puffinus spp.) breeding in New Zealand, with recommendations for monitoring. Tuhinga, 24: 159–204.
^ Lavers J. 2014. Population status and threats to Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in South and Western Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu164
^ Reid T, Hindell M, Lavers JL, Wilcox C (2013) Re-examining mortality sources and population trends in a declining seabird: using Bayesian methods to incorporate existing information and new data. PLoS One 8:e58230
^ Waugh SM, Tennyson A, Taylor G, Wilson K-J (2013) Population sizes of shearwaters (Puffinus spp.) breeding in New Zealand, with recommendations for monitoring. Tuhinga 24:159-204
^ Priddel D, Carlile N, Fullagar P, Hutton I, O'Neill L (2006) Decline in the distribution and abundance of Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) on Lord Howe Island, Australia. Biological Conservation 128:412-424
^ Waugh, S.M., Tennyson, A., Taylor, G., and Wilson, K.-J. (2013) Population sizes of shearwaters (Puffinus spp.) breeding in New Zealand, with recommendations for monitoring. Tuhinga 24: 159-204
^ Lavers J. 2014. Population status and threats to Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in South and Western Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu164
^ Lavers, Jennifer L.; Hutton, Ian; Bond, Alexander L. (January 2019). "Changes in technology and imperfect detection of nest contents impedes reliable estimates of population trends in burrowing seabirds". Global Ecology and Conservation. 17: e00579. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00579. hdl:10141/622450.
^ Garnett S, Szabo J, Dutson G (2011) The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2010.
^ Robertson HA, Dowding JE, Elliott GP, Hitchmough RA, Miskelly CM, O’Donnell CFJ, Powlesland RG, Sagar PM, Scofield RP, Taylor GA. 2013. Conservation status of New Zealand birds 2012. New Zealand Threat Classification Series 4. Department of Conservation, Wellington
^ Cooper J, Baker GB, 2008. Identifying candidate species for inclusion within the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. Marine Ornithology 36: 1-8.
^ DPaW, 2015. Wildlife conservation (specially protected fauna) notice 2015, Government gazette of Western Australia. Department of Parks and Wildlife, Perth
^ Bond AL and Lavers JL. 2015. Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in the north-eastern Pacific Ocean: a summary and synthesis of records from Canada and Alaska. Canadian Field-Naturalist 129: 263-267
^ Reid T, Tuck GN, Hindell MA, Thalmann S, Phillips RA, Wilcox C (2013) Nonbreeding distribution of Flesh-footed Shearwaters and the potential for overlap with north Pacific fisheries. Biological Conservation 166:3-10
^ Lavers JL, Bond AL, Van Wilgenburg SL, and Hobson KA. 2013. Linking at-sea mortality of a pelagic shearwater to breeding colonies of origin using biogeochemical markers. Marine Ecology Progress Series 491:265-275
^ Bond AL, Lavers JL (2014) Climate change alters the trophic niche of a declining apex marine predator. Global Change Biology 20: 2100-2107
^ Bond AL, Lavers JL (2011) Trace element concentrations in feathers of Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) from across their breeding range. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 61:318-326
^ Lavers JL, Bond AL, Hutton I (2014) Plastic ingestion by Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): implications for fledgling body condition and the accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals. Environmental Pollution 187: 124-129
^ Hutton I, Carlile N, Priddel D, 2008. Plastic ingestion by Flesh-footed Shearwaters, Puffinus carneipes, and Wedge-tailed Shearwaters, Puffinus pacificus. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania

[iucn_status_11_November_2021-1] BirdLife International (2019). "Ardenna carneipes". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22698188A155469189. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22698188A155469189.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.

[2] "Scientists propose changing bird's problematic name". NHM. 31 October 2024.

[3] Austin, J.J. (1996) Molecular phylogenetics of Puffinus shearwaters: preliminary evidence from mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 6, 77-88

[4] Austin, J.J., Bretagnolle, V., Pasquet, E., 2004. A global molecular phylogeny of the small Puffinus shearwaters and implications for systematics of the Little–Audubon's Shearwater complex. Auk 121: 847–864

[5] Penhallurick, J., and Wink, M. (2004) Analysis of the taxonomy and nomenclature of the Procellariiformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Emu 104: 125-147

[6] Lombal, Anicee J.; Wenner, Theodore J.; Lavers, Jennifer L.; Austin, Jeremy J.; Woehler, Eric J.; Hutton, Ian; Burridge, Christopher P. (February 2018). "Genetic divergence between colonies of Flesh-footed Shearwater Ardenna carneipes exhibiting different foraging strategies". Conservation Genetics. 19 (1): 27–41. doi:10.1007/s10592-017-0994-y. ISSN 1566-0621. S2CID 203717.

[7] Ferrer Obiol, J.; James, H.F.; Chesser, R.T.; Bretagnolle, V.; González-Solís, J.; Rozas, J.; Welch, A.J.; Riutort, M. (2022). "Palaeoceanographic changes in the late Pliocene promoted rapid diversification in pelagic seabirds". Journal of Biogeography. 49 (1): 171–188. doi:10.1111/jbi.14291. hdl:2445/193747.

[8] Lavers, Jennifer L.; Hutton, Ian; Bond, Alexander L. (January 2019). "Changes in technology and imperfect detection of nest contents impedes reliable estimates of population trends in burrowing seabirds". Global Ecology and Conservation. 17: e00579. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00579. hdl:10141/622450.

[9] Lavers J. 2014. Population status and threats to Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in South and Western Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu164

[10] Waugh, S. M., Tennyson, A., Taylor, G., and Wilson, K.-J. 2013. Population sizes of shearwaters (Puffinus spp.) breeding in New Zealand, with recommendations for monitoring. Tuhinga, 24: 159–204.

[11] Lavers J. 2014. Population status and threats to Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in South and Western Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu164

[12] Reid T, Hindell M, Lavers JL, Wilcox C (2013) Re-examining mortality sources and population trends in a declining seabird: using Bayesian methods to incorporate existing information and new data. PLoS One 8:e58230

[13] Waugh SM, Tennyson A, Taylor G, Wilson K-J (2013) Population sizes of shearwaters (Puffinus spp.) breeding in New Zealand, with recommendations for monitoring. Tuhinga 24:159-204

[14] Priddel D, Carlile N, Fullagar P, Hutton I, O'Neill L (2006) Decline in the distribution and abundance of Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) on Lord Howe Island, Australia. Biological Conservation 128:412-424

[15] Waugh, S.M., Tennyson, A., Taylor, G., and Wilson, K.-J. (2013) Population sizes of shearwaters (Puffinus spp.) breeding in New Zealand, with recommendations for monitoring. Tuhinga 24: 159-204

[16] Lavers J. 2014. Population status and threats to Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in South and Western Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu164

[17] Lavers, Jennifer L.; Hutton, Ian; Bond, Alexander L. (January 2019). "Changes in technology and imperfect detection of nest contents impedes reliable estimates of population trends in burrowing seabirds". Global Ecology and Conservation. 17: e00579. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00579. hdl:10141/622450.

[18] Garnett S, Szabo J, Dutson G (2011) The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2010.

[19] Robertson HA, Dowding JE, Elliott GP, Hitchmough RA, Miskelly CM, O’Donnell CFJ, Powlesland RG, Sagar PM, Scofield RP, Taylor GA. 2013. Conservation status of New Zealand birds 2012. New Zealand Threat Classification Series 4. Department of Conservation, Wellington

[20] Cooper J, Baker GB, 2008. Identifying candidate species for inclusion within the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. Marine Ornithology 36: 1-8.

[21] DPaW, 2015. Wildlife conservation (specially protected fauna) notice 2015, Government gazette of Western Australia. Department of Parks and Wildlife, Perth

[22] Bond AL and Lavers JL. 2015. Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in the north-eastern Pacific Ocean: a summary and synthesis of records from Canada and Alaska. Canadian Field-Naturalist 129: 263-267

[23] Reid T, Tuck GN, Hindell MA, Thalmann S, Phillips RA, Wilcox C (2013) Nonbreeding distribution of Flesh-footed Shearwaters and the potential for overlap with north Pacific fisheries. Biological Conservation 166:3-10

[24] Lavers JL, Bond AL, Van Wilgenburg SL, and Hobson KA. 2013. Linking at-sea mortality of a pelagic shearwater to breeding colonies of origin using biogeochemical markers. Marine Ecology Progress Series 491:265-275

[25] Bond AL, Lavers JL (2014) Climate change alters the trophic niche of a declining apex marine predator. Global Change Biology 20: 2100-2107

[26] Bond AL, Lavers JL (2011) Trace element concentrations in feathers of Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) from across their breeding range. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 61:318-326

[27] Lavers JL, Bond AL, Hutton I (2014) Plastic ingestion by Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): implications for fledgling body condition and the accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals. Environmental Pollution 187: 124-129

[28] Hutton I, Carlile N, Priddel D, 2008. Plastic ingestion by Flesh-footed Shearwaters, Puffinus carneipes, and Wedge-tailed Shearwaters, Puffinus pacificus. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania

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Flesh-footed shearwater

References

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