Discourse on Inequality

Frontispiece and title page of an edition of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754), published by Marc-Michel Rey in 1755 in Holland.

Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (French: Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes), also commonly known as the "Second Discourse", is a 1755 treatise by philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, on the topic of social inequality and its origins. The work was written in 1754 as Rousseau's entry in a competition by the Academy of Dijon, and was published in 1755.

Rousseau first exposes in this work his conception of a human state of nature (broadly believed to be a hypothetical thought exercise) and of human perfectibility, an early idea of progress. He then explains the way in which, in his view, people may have established civil society, and this leads him to conclude that private property is the original source and basis of all inequality.

Context

The text was written in 1754 in response to a prize competition of the Academy of Dijon answering the prompt: "What is the origin of inequality among people, and is it authorized by natural law?" As with his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, Rousseau answered in the negative. He did not win with his treatise (as he had for the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences); a canon of Besançon by the name of François Xavier Talbert (l'abbé Talbert) did. The Discourse on Inequality was written in part to contradict the claims made by Locke, Hobbes, and Pufendorf in their discussions of the state of nature.[1]: 49  Rousseau published the text in 1755.[2]

Argument

Rousseau's text is divided into four main parts: the dedication, the preface, an extended inquiry into the nature of the human being and another inquiry into the evolution of the human species within society. It also includes an appendix that elaborates primarily on eighteenth century anthropological research throughout the text.[3] Rousseau discusses two types of inequality: natural, or physical inequality, and ethical, or moral inequality. Natural inequality involves differences between one human's body and that of another—it is a product of nature. Rousseau is not concerned with this type of inequality because he claims it is not the root of the inequality found in civil society. Instead, he argues moral inequality is unique to civil society and is evinced in differences in "wealth, nobility or rank, power and personal merit."[4] This type of inequality is established by convention. Rousseau appears to take a cynical view of civil society, where man has strayed from his "natural state" of individual independence and freedom to satisfy his individual needs and desires.

His discussion begins with an analysis of a natural man who bears, along with some developed animal species, instincts for self-preservation—a non-destructive love of self (amour de soi)—and a "natural repugnance" to suffering—a natural pity or compassion (pitié). Natural man acts only for his own sake and avoids conflicts with other animals (and humans). Rousseau's natural man is more or less like any other animal, with "self-preservation being his chief and almost sole concern" and "the only goods he recognizes in the universe" being food, a female, and sleep... Rousseau's man is a "savage" man. He is a loner and self-sufficient. Any battle or skirmish was only to protect himself. The natural man was in prime condition, fast, and strong, capable of caring for himself. He killed only for his own self-preservation.

Natural man's anthropological distinction (from the animal kingdom) is based on his capacity for "perfectibility" and innate sense of his freedom. The former, although translated as "perfectibility," has nothing to do with a drive for perfection or excellence, which might confuse it with virtue ethics. Instead, perfectibility describes how humans can learn by observing others. Human freedom does not mean the capacity to choose, which would require reason, but instead the ability to refrain from instinct. Only with such a capacity can humans acquire new habits and practices.

The most important feature of Rousseau's natural man is that he lacks reason, in contrast to most of the Western intellectual tradition. Rousseau claims natural man does not possess reason or language (in which reason's generation is rooted) or society—and these three things are mutually-conditioning, such that none can come into being without the others.

Rousseau's natural man significantly differs from, and is a response to, that of Hobbes; Rousseau says as much at various points throughout his work. He thinks that Hobbes conflates human being in the state of nature with human being in civil society. Unlike Hobbes's natural man, Rousseau's is not motivated by fear of death because he cannot conceive of that end; thus fear of death already suggests a movement out of the state of nature. Also, this natural man, unlike Hobbes's, is not in constant state of fear and anxiety. Rousseau's natural man possesses a few qualities that allow him to distinguish himself from the animals over a long period of time.

The process by which natural man becomes civilized is uncertain in the Discourse, but it could have had two or three different causes. The most likely causes are environmental, such that humans came into closer proximity and began cohabitation, which in turn facilitated the development of reason and language. Equally, human "perfectibility" could explain this change in the nature of the human being.[5] Rousseau is not really interested in explaining the development, but acknowledges its complexity.[6]

What is important is that with primitive social existence (preceding civil society), humans gain amour propre[7]("self-esteem", "self-love", or "vanity") and most of the rest of Rousseau's account is based on this. Rousseau's critique of civil society is primarily based on psychological features of civil man, with amour propre pushing individuals to compare themselves with others, to gain a sense of self corresponding to this, and to dissolve natural man's natural pity: "the savage lives within himself, sociable man, always outside himself, can only live in the opinion of others". For Rousseau, amour propre did not exist in the state of nature - amour de soi and pitié were enough to ensure survival.[1]: 55 

The beginning of part two dramatically imagines some lone errant soul planting the stakes that first establish private property: "The first person who, having enclosed a plot of land, took it into his head to say this is mine and found people simple enough to believe him, was the true founder of civil society".[8] But Rousseau then clarifies that this moment was presaged by a series of environmental and rational conditions that made it possible. For Rousseau, even the concept of private property required a series of other concepts in order to be formed.

The inequality that began with the establishment of private property was progressively exacerbated into slavery, despotism, and corruption.[1]: 67  Rousseau asserted that the stage of human development associated with what he called "savages" was the best or optimal in human development, between the less-than-optimal extreme of brute animals on the one hand and the extreme of decadent civilization on the other. "...[N]othing is so gentle as man in his primitive state, when placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes and the fatal enlightenment of civil man".[9] Rousseau argues that it is not possible to return to the state of nature. He did believe, however, that it was possible to correct some of the mistakes that were made in the transition to civilisation.[1]: 70  Rousseau returned to this theme in The Social Contract.

Dedication

The work is dedicated to the state of Geneva, Rousseau's birthplace. On the face of the dedication, he praises Geneva as a good, if not perfect, republic. The qualities he picks out for praise include the stability of its laws and institutions, the community spirit of its inhabitants, and its good relations with neighboring states, neither threatening them nor threatened by them, and the well-behaved women of Geneva. However, this is not how Geneva truly was. This is the type of regime Rousseau wished for. The epistle dedicatory is a highly ironic and idealized version of the Geneva Rousseau really wanted. Also, his description is in great contrast with Paris, where he had spent many years previous to writing this discourse, and which he had left bitterly. Thus, his description of Geneva is in part a statement against Paris.[citation needed]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d Wokler, Robert (2001). Rousseau: a very short introduction. Very short introductions. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280198-2.
  2. ^ Peter Gay, The Basic Political Writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau, Hackett Press, 1987, p. 25
  3. ^ Miller, Jean-Jacques Rousseau ; translated by Donald A. Cress ; introduced by James (1992). Discourse on the origin of inequality. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.Co. ISBN 9780872201507.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1992). Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Co. p. 66.
  5. ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1992). Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Co. p. 26.
  6. ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1992). Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Co. p. 43.
  7. ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1992). Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Co. p. 46.
  8. ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1992). Discourse on the Origin of Inequality. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Co. p. 44.
  9. ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1754), "Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, part two", The Basic Political Writings, Hackett, p. 64

Read other articles:

Menara Jam Dubai terletak di Al Rigga —— Permukiman di Uni Emirat Arab —— Al Riggaالرقة Negara Uni Emirat Arab Emirat Dubai Kota Dubai Jumlah daerah 119 Statistik permukiman Luas 0.89 km² Jumlah penduduk 5,684[1] (2000) Kepadatan penduduk 6,386/km² Permukiman sekitarnya Naif, Al Muraqqabat, Port Saeed, Rigga Al Buteen Koordinat 25°26′37″N 55°32′08″E / 25.44361°N 55.53556°E / 25.44361; 55.53556 Al Rigga atau Al Riqqa (A...

 

 

Cetacea[1] Periode Eosen awal - sekarang 55–0 jtyl PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N Cetacea Searah jarum jam dari atas: paus sperma (Physeter macrocephalus), lumba-lumba sungai Amazon (Inia geoffrensis), paus paruh Blainville (Mesoplodon densirostris), paus sikat selatan (Eubalaena australis), narwhal (Monodon monoceros), paus bungkuk (Megaptera novaeangliae), orca (Orcinus orca), paus abu-abu (Eschrichtius robustus) dan pesut pelabuhan (Phocoena phocoena).TaksonomiKerajaanAnimali...

 

 

American playwright Avery HopwoodHopwood in 1922Born(1882-05-28)May 28, 1882Cleveland, Ohio, United StatesDiedJuly 1, 1928(1928-07-01) (aged 46)Juan-les-Pins, Antibes, FranceOccupationPlaywrightNationalityAmericanEducationUniversity of MichiganGenreTheatre James Avery Hopwood (May 28, 1882 – July 1, 1928) was an American playwright of the Jazz Age. He had four plays running simultaneously on Broadway in 1920. Early life Hopwood was born to James and Jule Pendergast Hopwood on May ...

  لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع سلاح (توضيح). سلاحمعلومات عامةصنف فرعي من tool (en) adult product (en) [1] الاستعمال  القائمة ... هجوم ردع (علم العقاب) تجميع قتل تدمير صيد وسم weapon تُستخدَم بواسطة مقاتلصياد رمز نظام منسق 93[2] تعديل - تعديل مصدري - تعديل ويكي بيانات سلاح المسدس الشخصي. مظاهر...

 

 

Not to be confused with Pride Canterbury, an annual pride event. Pride of Canterbury approaching Calais History Name European Pathway (1991–2003) Pride of Canterbury (2003–present) Owner P&O European Ferries (1991–1998) P&O Stena Line (1998–2002) P&O (2002–present) Operator P&O European Ferries (1991–1998) P&O Stena Line (1998–2002) P&O Ferries (2002–present) Port of registryLimassol,  Cyprus RouteDover - Calais BuilderSchichau Unterweser AG, Germa...

 

 

This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: Malaysia at the 2023 World Athletics Championships – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2023) Sporting event delegationMalaysia at the2023 World Athletics ChampionshipsFlag of MalaysiaWA codeMASin Budapest, Hungary19 August ...

1991 film by Brian Gilbert Not Without My DaughterTheatrical release posterDirected byBrian GilbertScreenplay byDavid W. RintelsBased onNot Without My Daughter by Betty Mahmoody and William HofferProduced byHarry J. UflandMary Jane UflandStarring Sally Field Alfred Molina Sheila Rosenthal Roshan Seth CinematographyPeter HannanEdited byTerry RawlingsMusic byJerry GoldsmithProductioncompaniesPathe EntertainmentUfland ProductionsDistributed byMetro-Goldwyn-MayerRelease dateJanuary 11, 1991Runnin...

 

 

Cet article est une ébauche concernant Marseille et les monuments historiques français. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) ; pour plus d’indications, visitez le projet Marseille. Lycée Montgrand Histoire et statut Fondation Octobre 1891 Type Lycée Protection  Inscrit MH (1997)[1] Administration Académie Académie d'Aix-Marseille Proviseur Nathalie Manivet-Delaye Études Population scolaire 830 élèves (2019-2020) Enseignants 66 profes...

 

 

American Greco-Roman wrestler G'Angelo HancockG'Angelo Hancock at the 2021 World Wrestling Championships in Oslo, NorwayPersonal informationFull nameTracy G'Angelo HancockBorn (1997-07-27) July 27, 1997 (age 26)Fountain, Colorado, U.S.SportCountryUnited StatesSportAmateur wrestlingWeight class97 kgEventGreco-Roman Medal record Men's Greco-Roman wrestling Representing  United States World Championships 2021 Oslo 97 kg Pan American Games 2019 Lima 97 kg Pan American Champion...

 Giro d'Italia 1951Fausto Coppi all'arrivo della 9 tappa della 34ª edizione del Giro d'italiaEdizione34ª Data19 maggio - 10 giugno PartenzaMilano ArrivoMilano Percorso4 154 km, 20 tappe Tempo121h11'37 Media34,267 km/h Classifica finalePrimo Fiorenzo Magni Secondo Rik Van Steenbergen Terzo Ferdinand Kübler Classifiche minoriMontagna Louis Bobet Maglia nera Giovanni Pinarello Cronologia Edizione precedenteEdizione successiva Giro d'Italia 1950Giro d'Italia 1952 ...

 

 

 本表是動態列表,或許永遠不會完結。歡迎您參考可靠來源來查漏補缺。 潛伏於中華民國國軍中的中共間諜列表收錄根據公開資料來源,曾潛伏於中華民國國軍、被中國共產黨聲稱或承認,或者遭中華民國政府調查審判,為中華人民共和國和中國人民解放軍進行間諜行為的人物。以下列表以現今可查知時間為準,正確的間諜活動或洩漏機密時間可能早於或晚於以下所歸�...

 

 

Cet article est une ébauche concernant les armes. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. AGM-183 ARRW Vue d'un prototype d'AGM-183A transporté par un B-52H du 412th Test Wing (en) de l'US Air Force lors d'un essai en juin 2019. Présentation Type de missile Missile hypersonique Constructeur Lockheed Martin Statut En cours de Développement Caractéristiques Vitesse Mach 20 Portée 1 600 ...

Белгородский уезд Герб Страна  Российская империя Губерния Курская губерния Уездный город Белгород История и география Дата образования XVI век Дата упразднения 1928 Площадь 2625,5 верст² (≈2987,9 км²) (1914)7903 км² (1926) Население Население 174 299 (1897)[1]563 240 (1926)[2] чел.  М�...

 

 

British magazine, published 1868–1914 This article is about the British magazine published from 1868 to 1914. For other Vanity Fair magazines, see Vanity Fair (magazines). Winter supplement (23 November 1899); caricature of the trial of Dreyfus Vanity Fair was a British weekly magazine that was published from 1868 to 1914. Founded by Thomas Gibson Bowles in London, the magazine included articles on fashion, theatre, current events as well as word games and serial fiction. The cream of the p...

 

 

Vous lisez un « article de qualité » labellisé en 2009. Naufrage du Titanic Dessin de Willy Stöwer. Caractéristiques de l'accident Date14 au 15 avril 1912 TypeNaufrage CausesCollision avec un iceberg SiteOcéan Atlantique Nord Coordonnées 41° 46′ 00″ nord, 50° 14′ 00″ ouest Caractéristiques de l'appareil Type d'appareilTitanic CompagnieWhite Star Line Lieu d'origineSouthampton Lieu de destinationNew York Passagersenviron 2 200 Mo...

Josh Grisetti, winner, Lead Actor in a Musical Beth Grant, winner, Lead Actress in a Play Sally Struthers, winner, Featured Actress in a Musical Harry Groener, winner, Featured Actor in a Play John Caird, winner, Book for an Original Musical, and nominee, Director of a Musical T. R. Knight, nominee, Lead Actor in a Musical Patrick J. Adams, nominee, Featured Actor in a Play Connor Trinneer, nominee, Featured Actor in a Play The nominees for the 2010 Ovation Awards were announced on October 18...

 

 

Table tennis at the Olympics Table tennisat the Games of the XXVIII OlympiadVenueGalatsi Olympic HallDates14–23 August 2004Competitors172 from 50 nations← 20002008 → Table tennis at the2004 Summer OlympicsSinglesmenwomenDoublesmenwomenvte Table tennis at the 2004 Summer Olympics took place in the Galatsi Olympic Hall with 172 competitors in 4 events.[1] Participating nations A total of 172 athletes (86 men and 86 women), representing 50 NOCs, competed...

 

 

Cette page contient des caractères spéciaux ou non latins. S’ils s’affichent mal (▯, ?, etc.), consultez la page d’aide Unicode. Pour les articles homonymes, voir Samsara (homonymie). Peinture tibétaine traditionnelle ou tanka figurant la roue de vie et les rayons du saṃsāra. Le saṃsāra (संसार, IAST : saṃsāra, signifiant « ensemble de ce qui circule », d'où « transmigration » ; 輪回 / 轮回, lúnhuí...

共產黨 欧洲 挪威红党 挪威共产党 瑞典共产党 (1995年) 瑞典共产党 (2005年) 芬兰共产党 (1994年) 丹麦共产党 爱沙尼亚共产党 (1990年) 拉脱维亚社会党 立陶宛社会主义人民阵线 白俄罗斯共产党 白俄罗斯左翼党“公正世界” 烏克蘭共產黨 摩尔多瓦共和国共产党人党 德涅斯特河沿岸的共产党 俄罗斯联邦共产党 德国的共产党 波兰共产党 (2002年) 捷克和摩拉维亚共产党 斯洛伐克共�...

 

 

This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Banatska Topola – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Village in Vojvodina, SerbiaBanatska Topola Банатска Топола (Serbian)Village (Selo)Map of Banatska Topola and other settlements in the nei...