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1877 Iquique earthquake
	Iquique Santiago
Local date	May 9, 1877
Local time	21:16
Magnitude	8.5 Ms; 8.7–8.9 Mw; 9.0 Mt
Epicenter	19°36′S 70°12′W / 19.6°S 70.2°W
Areas affected	Peru, Tarapacá Region and Bolivia, Antofagasta Region (both now part of Chile)
Max. intensity	MMI XI (Extreme)
Tsunami	Yes
Casualties	2,385

The 1877 Iquique earthquake occurred at 21:16 local time on 9 May (0:59 on 10 May UTC). It had a magnitude of 8.5 on the surface-wave magnitude scale.^[2] Other estimates of its magnitude have been as high as 8.9 M_w and 9.0 M_t (based on the size of the tsunami).^[1] It had a maximum intensity of XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale^[3] and triggered a devastating tsunami. A total of 2,385 people died,^[3] mainly in Fiji from the tsunami.

Historical context

Affected areas in what was then part of Bolivia but is now the Antofagasta region of Chile, had during this period been subject to the Atacama border dispute between the two countries. Under the 1874 boundary treaty between Bolivia and Chile, the border between the two nations as of 1877 followed the 24th parallel south. The terms of that treaty required that Bolivia not levy taxes on Chilean companies mining nitrates between the 23rd and 24th parallels (including the city of Antofagasta) for 25 years, except for agreed duties to be shared between the two countries.^[4]

Following extensive damage in the 1877 earthquake and tsunami, the municipal authorities in Antofagasta voted for a tax of 10 centavos per quintal (approximately 46 kg or 101 lb) of nitrates exported to fund reconstruction of the town.^[4] The Chilean Antofagasta Nitrate & Railway Company, a major nitrate mining company in the region, refused to pay, backed by the Chilean government. This dispute resulted in the War of the Pacific, fought from 1879 to 1884,^[4] by which Chile gained control of territory as far north as Tacna, including Bolivia's entire coastline.

Tectonic setting

Coastal regions of Peru and Chile lie above the convergent boundary, where the Nazca plate is being subducted beneath the South American plate along the line of the Peru–Chile Trench. The rate of convergence across this boundary is measured at about 8 cm (3.1 in) per year. This boundary has been the site of many great megathrust earthquakes, in addition to events caused by faulting within both the subducting and over-riding plates.^[5]

Damage

The earthquake shaking caused significant damage over most of the coastal parts of the Tarapacá and Antofagasta Regions. The tsunami caused a 10 m (33 ft) wave along about 500 km (310 mi) of coast, from Arica in the north to Mejillones in the south.^[6] At Arica the water reached the cathedral. ^{[citation needed]} The hulk of the U.S. gunboat Wateree, which had been beached hundreds of metres inland by the final wave of the tsunami triggered by the 1868 Arica earthquake, was moved several kilometres to the north along the coast and nearer the shoreline.^[7] The tsunami caused 2,000 deaths in Fiji, and another 5 in Hilo, Hawaii.^[8]

Characteristics

Earthquake

The shaking lasted for five minutes at Caleta Pabellón de Pica, a coastal town 70 km (43 mi) south of Iquique. The area of felt intensity of VIII on the Mercalli intensity scale or greater, extended from about 50 km (31 mi) south of Arica to just south of Cobija. This indicates a rupture length of about 420 km (260 mi).^[1]

Tsunami

The tsunami affected the coasts of Peru and northern Chile and was observed across the Pacific Ocean, in Australia, New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Hawaii, Mexico, California and Japan.^[8]^[9] At Arica eight separate large waves were recorded.^[10]

Future earthquake hazard

The rupture area of the 1877 earthquake has been recognised as one of the major seismic gaps on the plate boundary, known as the "Northern Chile Seismic Gap". The M_w = 7.7 2007 Tocopilla earthquake occurred at the southern edge of the gap, but is not considered to have necessarily reduced the risk of a great megathrust earthquake within this area.^[5] In 2005, a recurrence period of 135 years was estimated for great earthquakes along this part of the plate boundary, suggesting that a similar earthquake to the 1877 event was likely in the early 21st century.^[11] The 2014 Iquique earthquake struck in the same seismic gap with a magnitude of M_w  = 8.2.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Comte, D.; Pardo M. (1991). "Reappraisal of Great Historical Earthquakes in the Northern Chile and Southern Peru Seismic Gaps". Natural Hazards. 4 (1): 23–44. Bibcode:1991NatHa...4...23C. doi:10.1007/bf00126557. S2CID 140190546.
^ (in Spanish) Servicio sismológico Universidad de Chile, Sismos importantes o destructivos desde 1570.
^ ^a ^b National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (1972). "Significant Earthquake Information". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K. Retrieved 1 August 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bruce W. Farcau (2000). The Ten Cents War: Chile, Peru, and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific, 1879–1884. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 39, 40. ISBN 978-0-275-96925-7.
^ ^a ^b Delouis, B.; Pardo M., Legrand D. & Monfret T. (2009). "The Mw 7.7 Tocopilla Earthquake of 14 November 2007 at the Southern Edge of the Northern Chile Seismic Gap: Rupture in the Deep Part of the Coupled Plate Interface" (PDF). Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 99 (1): 87–94. Bibcode:2009BuSSA..99...87D. doi:10.1785/0120080192. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011.
^ Hatori, T. (1968). "Study on distant tsunamis along the Coast of Japan. Part 2, tsunamis of South American origin" (PDF). Bulletin of the Earthquake Research Institute. 46: 345–359. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-07. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
^ Kovach, R.L. (2004). Early earthquakes of the Americas. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-521-82489-7.
^ ^a ^b National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service: NCEI/WDS Global Historical Tsunami Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. "Tsunami Runups". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7. Retrieved 1 August 2022.
^ An oceanic perturbation, Otago Daily Times, Issue 4753, 12 May 1877, Page 2
^ NGDC. "Runup Information". Retrieved 1 August 2022.
^ Zamudio, Y.; Berrocal J. & Fernandes C. (2005). "Seismic hazard assessment in the Peru-Chile border region" (PDF). 6th International Symposium on Andean Geodynamics (ISAG 2005, Barcelona), Extended Abstracts. pp. 813–816. Retrieved 2 January 2011.