Wisdom has been defined in many different ways,[12][16][13] and there are several distinct approaches to assessing the characteristics attributed to wisdom.[17][18]
In social and psychological sciences, several distinct approaches to wisdom exist,[13] along with techniques of operationalization[12] and measurement[18] of wisdom as a psychological construct. Wisdom is the capacity to have foreknowledge of something, to know the consequences (positive and negative) of the available courses of action, and take the best of the available options.[21]
Sapience
"Sapience" redirects here. Not to be confused with Sentience.
Sapience ("sophia" in Greek) is "transcendent wisdom", "ultimate reality", or the ultimate truth of things.[16][14][22] This more cosmic, "big picture" definition is often how wisdom ("true wisdom" or "Wisdom" with a capital W) is considered in a religious context.[16][14] It transcends mere practical wisdom and may include deep understanding of self, interconnectedness, conditioned origination, and phenomenological insight.[23][16][14] A person with this type of wisdom can act with appropriate judgment, a broad understanding of situations, and greater appreciation/compassion towards other living beings.[23]
The word sapience is derived from the Latinsapientia, meaning "wisdom".[24] The corresponding verb sapere has the original meaning of "to taste", hence "to perceive, to discern" and "to know"; its present participle sapiens was chosen by Carl Linnaeus for the Latin binomial for the human species, Homo sapiens.
In the Star Wars universe, wisdom is valued. George Lucas incorporated spirituality and morals, recurrent in mythological and philosophical themes, into the films; one of his inspirations was Joseph Campbell's The Hero of a Thousand Faces.[30] The character Master Yoda from the films evokes the trope of the wise sage or "Oriental Monk",[31] and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.[32][33] Psychologist D. W. Kreger's book The Tao of Yoda adapts the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching in relation to Yoda's thinking.[33] Knowledge is canonically considered one of the pillars of the films' Jedi knights, something expanded upon in the non-canon book The Jedi Path,[34] and wisdom can serve as a tenet for Jediism. The Jedi Code states: "Ignorance, yet knowledge."[35] In a psychology populational study published by Grossmann and team in 2019, respondents considered Yoda to be wiser than Spock, a fictional character from the Star Trek series, due to Spock's blind spot for emotion, which was positively associated with wise reasoning in people:[36] "Yoda embraces his emotions and aims to achieve a balance between them. Yoda is known to be emotionally expressive, to share a good joke with others, but also to recognize sorrow and his past mistakes".[37]
Wisdom tooth
For broader coverage of this topic, see Wisdom tooth.
In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the English wisdom tooth. This nickname originated from the classical tradition—the Hippocratic writings used the term sóphronistér (in Greek, related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in Latindens sapientiae (wisdom tooth).[38]
Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).[39]
— Sommer
The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife of Zeus, who, according to Hesiod's Theogony, had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.[40][41] Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.[42]
Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the Muses (Musagetes),[43] who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According to Plato in his Cratylus, the name of Apollo could also mean "ballon" (archer) and "omopoulon" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer".[44] Apollo prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism "know thyself" (gnōthi seauton)[a] was inscribed (one of the Delphic maxims).[45] He was contrasted with Hermes, who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with Thoth in an Egyptian syncretism, under the name Hermes Trimegistus.[46] Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the Seven Sages of Greece.[47]
According to Plato and Xenophon, the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.[48] According to Plato's Apology, Socrates decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge:
I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.
The ancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified as Minerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl, which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.[51]
Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.[52]
In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the realms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic.[53] He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of gods and mortals alike.[52]
Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of Ancient Egypt. Thoth, married to Maat (in ancient Egyptian: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.[54][55]
Academia
Theories and models
The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm is an expertise model of life wisdom.[56][57]
Nicholas Maxwell, a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believes academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.[59] This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.[60] He teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom.[61]
The three major psychological categories for wisdom are personality, development, and expertise.[62]
Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.[63] Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."[64]
The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom.[65][13] Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary,[13] but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain meta-cognitive processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.[66][12] These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.[67] Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life.[68] Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.[69] Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from IQ.[70]
Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".[71] Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.[18][72]
Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom.[73] Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.[74]
Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that afford unbiased, sound judgment in the face of ill-defined life situations:
intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
compromise or integration of different perspectives[78][79]
Grossmann found that habitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.[80] Grossmann says contextual factors—such as culture, experiences, and social situations—influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice.[12][78] These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named after King Solomon, who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.)[81]
Measuring wisdom
A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.[82] Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone to biased[clarification needed] responses,[18][83] something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct[84] and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation.[85][82] Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.[18] Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom.[82] For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural[86] and within-cultural variability,[87] and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts[18][81] and in daily life.[88]
Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.[89][90][91] This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.[90] The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.[82] Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.[21]
In the AvestaGathas, hymns traditionally attributed to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" (Vohu Manah).[94] In Zoroastrianism, the order of the universe and morals is called asha (in Avestan, truth, righteousness), which is determined by this omniscient Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura (Amesha Spenta). It is related to another ahura deity, Spenta Mainyu (active Mentality).[95] It says in Yazna 31:[96]
To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.
In Baháʼí Faith scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree."[97] Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances".[98] One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his Divine Manifestation; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.[99]
The word "wisdom" (חכם) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness (חסד) and justice (צדק). The books of Proverbs and Psalms each urge readers to obtain and to increase in wisdom.[citation needed]
In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is exemplified by Solomon, who asks God for wisdom in 2 Chronicles 1:10. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. In Proverbs 9:10, the fear of the Lord is called the beginning of wisdom. Another proverb says that wisdom is gained from God, "For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding".[100] In Proverbs 1:20, there is also reference to wisdom personified in female form, "Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces." In Proverbs 8:22–31, this personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even as taking part in creation itself.
King Solomon continues his teachings of wisdom in the book of Ecclesiastes. Solomon discusses his exploration of the meaning of life and fulfillment, as he speaks of life's pleasures, work, and materialism, yet concludes that it is all meaningless. "'Meaningless! Meaningless!" says the Teacher [Solomon]. 'Utterly meaningless! Everything is meaningless'...For with much wisdom comes much sorrow, the more knowledge, the more grief"[101] Solomon concludes that all life's pleasures and riches, and even [human]wisdom, mean nothing if there is no relationship with God.[102]
The Talmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. Nolad is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).[103]
Christian thought opposes secular wisdom and embraces Godly wisdom. Paul the Apostle states that worldly wisdom thinks the claims of Christ to be foolishness. However, to those who are "on the path to salvation" Christ represents the wisdom of God.[104] Wisdom is considered one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.[105]1 Corinthians 12:8–10 gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which is wisdom.
The Epistle of James is a New Testament analogue of the book of Proverbs, in that it also discusses wisdom. It reiterates the message from Proverbs that wisdom comes from God by stating, "If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to you".[106] James also explains how wisdom helps one acquire other forms of virtue: "But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere."[107] James focuses on using this God-given wisdom to perform acts of service to the less fortunate.
Apart from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and James, other main books of wisdom in the Bible are Job, Psalms, and 1 and 2 Corinthians, which give lessons on gaining and using wisdom through difficult situations.
The Islamic term for wisdom is hikmah. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The term occurs a number of times in the Quran, notably in Sura 2:269, Sura 22:46, and Sura 6:151.
The Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi considers al-Hakim ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator.[108] Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in Islamic sciences and philosophy. The first Arab philosopher, Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book:[109]
We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.
In the Inuit tradition, developing[ambiguous] wisdom was one of the aims of teaching. An Inuit Elder said that a person became wise when they could see what needed to be done and do it successfully without being told what to do.
Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! Sin, his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence
The Buddhist term Prajñā was translated into Chinese as
智慧 (pinyin zhìhuì, characters 智 "knowledge" and 慧 "bright, intelligent").
In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between Asanga, Vasubandhu and Xuanzang.[further explanation needed][114]
Developing wisdom is of central importance in Buddhist traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering".[23][29] In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the Four Noble Truths and by following the Noble Eightfold Path.[23][29] This path lists mindfulness as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.[23]
Buddhist scriptures teach that wise people conduct themselves well.[115] A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.[116] Wisdom is the antidote to the self-chosen poison of ignorance. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:
He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in Dhamma). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.[117]
He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.[118]
One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.[119]
By quietude alone one does not become a sage (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a muni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.[120]
To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature (Buddha-nature or Tathagata) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the kleshas: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom. As the Sixth Patriarch of Chán Buddhism, Huineng, said in his Platform Sutra, "Mind without dispute is self-nature discipline, mind without disturbance is self-nature meditation, mind without ignorance is self-nature wisdom."
Lead me from the unreal to the real.
Lead me from darkness to light.
Lead me from death to immortality.
May there be peace, peace, and peace.
Wisdom in Hinduism is knowing oneself as the truth, as the basis for the entire Creation: ultimate self-awareness as the one who witnesses the entire creation in all its facets and forms. Further it means realization that an individual may, through right conduct and right living, come to realize their true relationship with the creation and the Paramatma.[citation needed]
Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with vigor is akin to humanity. To know to be shameful is akin to courage (zhi, ren, yong... three of Mengzi's sprouts of virtue).[citation needed][dubious – discuss]
Compare this with the Confucian classic Great Learning, which begins with: "The Way of learning to be great consists in manifesting the clear character, loving the people, and abiding in the highest good." This is comparable to the Roman virtue prudence, especially if one interprets "clear character" as "clear conscience". (From Chan's Sources of Chinese Philosophy).[citation needed]
In Taoism, wisdom is adherence to the three treasures: charity, simplicity, and humility.[citation needed]
"He who knows other men is discerning [智]; he who knows himself is intelligent [明]." (知人者智，自知者明。Tao Te Ching 33).[122]
Ecological wisdom – Philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium as developed by Arne Næss or Félix GuattariPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Eudaimonia – Human flourishing in ancient Greek philosophy
Five Ws – Checklist for a journalist's lead/lede: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
^Note that two thousand years after Aristotle, Isaac Newton was forced to admit that "I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity"
References
^"Wisdom". Cambridge Dictionary. 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2024. the ability to use your knowledge and experience to make good decisions and judgments[.]
^ ab"Wisdom". Oxford English Dictionary. July 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2024. judging rightly in matters relating to life and conduct; soundness of judgement in the choice of means and ends; sometimes, less strictly, sound sense [...] Personified (almost always as feminine) [...] Knowledge (esp. of a high or abstruse kind); enlightenment, learning, erudition
^"Wise". Dictionary.com. 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2024. power of discerning and judging [...] what is true or right; possessing discernment, judgment, or discretion [...] judicious or prudent [...] learned; erudite [...] informed[.]
^"Wise". Merriam Webster. 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2024. deep understanding, keen discernment, and a capacity for sound judgment [...] Prudent [...] Knowing [...] Crafty, Shrewd [...] Insolent[.]
^Kekes, John (1983). "Wisdom". American Philosophical Quarterly. 20 (3): 277–86. JSTOR20014008. Retrieved 18 July 2024. In descriptive knowledge one knows facts; in interpretive knowledge one knows the significance of the descriptively known facts.
^Phillips, D. Z. (1969). "Wisdom's Gods". The Philosophical Quarterly. 19 (74): 15–32. doi:10.2307/2218185. JSTOR2218185. Retrieved 21 July 2024. Wisdom is saying, then, that although in one sense all the facts may be known, in another sense questions involving a greater apprehension of the facts may remain.
^Lombardo, Thomas (2011). "Wisdom in the Twenty-First Century: A Theory Of Psycho-Social Evolution". World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues. 15 (1): 132–57. JSTOR48504847. Retrieved 25 July 2024. Wisdom may be defined as the continually evolving understanding of and fascination with the big picture of life, of what is important, ethical and meaningful and the desire and ability to apply this understanding to enhance the wellbeing of life, both for oneself and others.
^Ardelt, Monika (2004). "Wisdom as Expert Knowledge System: A Critical Review of a Contemporary Operationalization of an Ancient Concept". Human Development. 47 (5): 257–85. doi:10.1159/000079154. JSTOR26763810. Retrieved 25 July 2024. Wise people, [...] accept the positive as well as the negative side of reality [Assmann, 1994; Gadamer, 1960; Strijbos, 1995; Weinsheimer, 1985]. They are satisfied with their lives not because they concentrate only on its positive aspects but because they are aware of and can accept the reality of the present moment [Blanchard-Fields & Norris, 1995; Hart, 1987]. As a consequence, wise individuals can face even the most difficult situations with equanimity, such as the physical and social challenges that accompany old age [Ardelt, 1997, 2000a; Clayton, 1982; Kramer, 2000].
^Baltes, Paul B.; Smith, Jacqui (2008). "The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 3 (1): 56–64. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x. JSTOR40212228. PMID26158670. Retrieved 27 July 2024. Finally, wisdom is manifested in nonverbal and social behavior. Actions considered to be appropriate to confidential advice giving such as attentive listening, empathy, and tempered concern contribute to the attribution that a person is wise, especially if combined with older age and a wise verbal commentary (Stange, 2005).
^ abcdeGrossmann, Igor (2017). "Wisdom in Context". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 12 (2): 233–257. doi:10.1177/1745691616672066. PMID28346113. S2CID26818408. Retrieved 18 July 2024. Compromise [...] Intellectual humility [...] Recognition of uncertainty and change [...] Others' perspectives / broader contexts
^ abcdeStaudinger, U.M.; Glück, J. (2011). "Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field". Annual Review of Psychology. 62: 215–241. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659. PMID20822439.
^ abcdeTrowbridge, R.H. (May 2011). "Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of Conceptualizing Wisdom in Empirical Psychology". Research in Human Development. 8 (2): 111–117. doi:10.1080/15427609.2011.568872. S2CID145371442.
^Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (1871), The Fourfold Treasure, №991, Wisdom is, I suppose, the right use of knowledge. To know is not to be wise. Many men know a great deal, and are all the greater fools for it. There is no fool so great a fool as a knowing fool. But to know how to use knowledge is to have wisdom.
^ abMeacham, J. A. (1990). "The loss of wisdom". In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 181, 211.
^Martorana, Paul V.; Smith, Charles H. (2016). "Cultivating The Sage's Creative Vision: Insights from Perennial Wisdom on Approaching Organizational Change and Sustainability". The Journal of Corporate Citizenship (62): 76–90. doi:10.9774/GLEAF.4700.2016.ju.00011. JSTOR90003765. Retrieved 25 July 2024. The core principle of perennial wisdom and of creative vision, life as a unity, is far different from our ordinary way of perceiving life through a dualistic lens. Yet the creativity spoken of here is not merely arbitrary. Rather, it emerges from a sense of being in touch with the needs of people and of a situation. As an expression of wisdom, creativity is balanced and informed by a strong sense of responsibility and an interest in contributing to, harmonizing with and bringing healing to one's surroundings.
^Smith, Huston (1987). "Is There a Perennial Philosophy?". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 55 (3): 553–66. doi:10.1093/jaarel/LV.3.553. JSTOR1464070. Retrieved 25 July 2024. Perennialists are persons who are exceptionally sensitive to the commonalities that similarities disclose; they are drawn toward unity as moth to flame. [...] There is an Absolute, which is likewise Infinite. This Infinite both includes and transcends everything else, which everything is (in categorical contrast) finite and relative. The way the Absolute transcends the relative is to integrate the relative into itself so completely that even the Absolute/relative distinction gets annulled: form is emptiness, emptiness form. (This separates perennialism from the monism it is sometimes (mis)taken for; it is, rather, a-dvaita or non-dual).
^Gigerenzer, G.; Gaissmaier, W. (2011). "Heuristic Decision Making". Annual Review of Psychology. 62: 451–482. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145346. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0024-F16D-5. PMID21126183. Retrieved 26 July 2024. [Social heuristics] include imitation heuristics, tit-for-tat, the social-circle heuristic, and averaging the judgments of others to exploit the 'wisdom of crowds' (Hertwig & Herzog 2009). Imitate the-successful, for instance, speeds up learning of cue orders and can find orders that excel take-the-best's validity order (Garcia-Retamero et al. 2009).
^Hughes, Barnabas (1974). "Heuristic Teaching in Mathematics". Educational Studies in Mathematics. 5 (3): 291–99. doi:10.1007/BF00684704. JSTOR3482053. Retrieved 26 July 2024. The word heuristic [...] heuriskein, 'to discover' [...] 'a technique of discovery' [...] 'serving to guide, discover, or reveal' [...] 'the discovery method'. Mauritz Johnson (1966) observes that the idea is hardly new, and that, ignoring the classical accreditation of its use to Socrates in the Meno, one finds an early discussion of discovery learning by David P. Page in his Theory and Practice of Teaching in 1847 as well as by later writers, Herbert Spencer in 1860, Frank and Charles McMurry in 1897, and William Chandler Babley in 1905.
^Campbell, Joseph (2003). Cousineau, Phil (ed.). The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work (3rd ed.). Novato, California: New World Library. pp. 186–187.
Iwamura, Jane Naomi (2010). Virtual orientalism: Asian religions and American popular culture. Oxford University Press. OCLC1090089521.
Niemiec, Ryan M. (2014). Positive psychology at the movies: using films to build character strengths and well-being. Hogrefe. ISBN9780889374430. OCLC844533648.
^Carol, Sommer; Markopoulos, Panagiotis; Goggins, Shana (2013). "Mentoring master's level students: Drawing upon the wisdom of Athena as Mentor in Homer's Odyssey". Journal of Poetry Therapy. 26 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1080/08893675.2013.764049. Retrieved 25 July 2024. [R]eference to Athena within the context of mentoring is not new (Roberts, 2000; Sambunjak & Marusic, 2009) [...] Athena appears in the guise of an old friend of Odysseus, whose name happens to be Mentor. She offers aid and advice to the young Telemachus. [...] In relationship to Telemachus, Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).
^Griffiths, Alan H. (29 January 2024). "Seven Sages". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 1357.
^Ryan, Sharon (2013), "Wisdom", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 17 August 2019
^Baltes, Paul B.; Smith, Jacqui (2008). "The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 3 (1): 56–64. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x. JSTOR40212228. PMID26158670. Retrieved 27 July 2024. THE BERLIN WISDOM PARADIGM [...] combines a broad definition of wisdom as excellence in mind and virtue with a specific characterization of wisdom as an expert knowledge system dealing with the conduct and understanding of life. We called this domain of knowledge the fundamental pragmatics of life [...] life planning [...] life management [...] and life review[.]
^ abcdefgZhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. Retrieved 11 October 2024. Since wisdom research in psychology began in the late 1970s (Clayton, 1975), many scientific theories about wisdom have emerged, including: (a) the Berlin wisdom paradigm (Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Baltes & Smith, 2008; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000; Scheibe et al., 2007), (b) the balance theory of wisdom (Sternberg, 1998, 2018), (c) the self-transcendence wisdom theory (Levenson et al., 2005), (d) the three-dimensional wisdom theory (Ardelt, 2003; Thomas et al., 2015), (e) the H.E.R.O.(E.) model of wisdom (Webster, 2003; Webster et al., 2014, 2017), (f) the process view of wisdom (Yang, 2008, 2013, 2016, 2017), and (g) the integrating virtue and wit theory of wisdom (Chen & Wang, 2013; Wang et al., 2019, pp. 376–378; Wang & Zheng, 2012, 2014, 2015).
^Maxwell, Nicholas (2007). From Knowledge to Wisdom: A Revolution for Science and the Humanities. Pentire Press.
^"Friends of Wisdom". University College London. 21 February 2019. an association of people sympathetic to the idea that academic inquiry should help humanity acquire more wisdom by rational means
^Baltes, Paul B.; Staudinger, Ursula M. (2000). "Wisdom: A Metaheuristic (Pragmatic) to Orchestrate Mind and Virtue Toward Excellence". American Psychologist. 55 (1): 122–136. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4. PMID11392856. Retrieved 27 July 2024. Theoretical and empirical work on explicit psychological theories of wisdom can be roughly divided into three groups: (a) the conceptualization of wisdom as a personal characteristic or constellation of personality dispositions (e.g., Erikson, 1959; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998), (b) the conceptualization of wisdom in the neo-Piagetian tradition of postformal and dialectical thought (e.g., Alex ander & Langer, 1990; Labouvie-Vief, 1990), and (c) the conceptualization of wisdom as an expert system dealing with the meaning and conduct of life (P. Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990; Staudinger & Baltes, 1994).
^Sternberg, R. J. (1985). "Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 49 (3): 607–62. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607.
^Bluck, Susan; Glück, Judith (2005). "From the Inside Out: People's Implicit Theories of Wisdom". In Sternberg, Robert; Jordan, Jennifer (eds.). A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives. New York, U.S.A.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 84–109. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511610486.005 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISBN9780511610486.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
Baltes, P.B.; Glück, J.; Kunzmann, U. "Wisdom: Its structure and function in regulating successful life span development". In Snyder, C.R.; Lopez, S.J. (eds.). Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. pp. 327–347.
^Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2004). "Introduction: Strengths of Wisdom and Knowledge". Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. American Psychological Association. pp. 105–107. ISBN0-19-516701-5. Perspective (wisdom) refers to the ability to take stock of life in large terms, in ways that make sense to oneself and others. Perspective is the product of knowledge and experience[.] [...] In a social context, perspective allows the individual to listen to others, to evaluate what they say, and then to offer good (sage) advice.
^ abcdefghPeterson, Christopher (2006). "The Values in Action (VIA) Classification of Strengths". In Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly; Csikszentmihalyi, Isabella S. (eds.). A Life Worth Living: Contributions to Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 39. ISBN0-19-517679-0.
^Taylor, M.; Bates, G.; Webster, J.D. (2011). "Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom: Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (SAWS) and the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS)". Experimental Aging Research. 37 (2): 129–141. doi:10.1080/0361073X.2011.554508. PMID21424954. S2CID205555336.
^Grossmann, I.; Gerlach, T.M.; Denissen, J.J. (2016). "Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges". Social Psychological and Personality Science. 7 (7): 611–622. doi:10.1177/1948550616652206. S2CID148246126.
^ abOrwoll, L.; Perlmutter, M. (1990). Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–177. ISBN978-0-521-36718-9.
^Boyce, Mary (1975). A History of Zoroastrianism. Vol. I. Leiden/Köln: Brill.
^"Yazna 31". Sacred Liturgy and Gathas/Hymns of Zarathushtra.
^"Asl-i-Kullu'l-Khayr (Words of Wisdom)". Bahai Reference Library. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (pocket-size ed.). US Bahá’í Publishing Trust. 1988. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
^ʻAbduʹl-Bahá (1980). A traveler's narrative. Translated by Browne, Edward G. (New and corr. ed.). Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'i Publ. Trust. p. 46. ISBN978-0877431343.
^Esslemont, J.E. (2006). Bahá'u'lláh and the new era: an introduction to the Bahá'í faith. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Pub. Trust. ISBN978-1931847278.
^Adamson, Peter (2018), "Al-Kindi", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2018 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 16 August 2019
^Scott, David (1998). "The Perennial Message of 'the Goddess': Enduring Themes down the Ages in Bactria". East and West. 48 (1/2): 27–39. JSTOR29757365. Retrieved 25 July 2024. In the Garuda Purana 1.7.9, one of the manifestations of the energy of Sarasvati was medha (wisdom), an identification repeated with respect to the Goddess in the Devi Mahatmya 1.11. Thus it is no surprise to find with Anahita, in verse 86 of her Aban Yast, that 'the priests (athravans) who read and the pupils of the priest will beg of thee knowledge'.
Artikel ini membutuhkan rujukan tambahan agar kualitasnya dapat dipastikan. Mohon bantu kami mengembangkan artikel ini dengan cara menambahkan rujukan ke sumber tepercaya. Pernyataan tak bersumber bisa saja dipertentangkan dan dihapus.Cari sumber: Prefektur Tochigi – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTORUntuk kegunaan lain, lihat Tochigi. Prefektur Tochigi 栃木県PrefekturTranskripsi Jepang • Jepang栃木県 • R
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