The Renaissance in Ferrara began with the signoria of Leonello d'Este around the mid-15th century. Under Leonello's patronage, Ferrara became a hub for the arts and intellectual thought, attracting prominent artists and scholars of the time.[1] A significant contribution came from the Ferrarese school of painters, including Cosmè Tura, Francesco del Cossa, and Ercole de' Roberti. These artists were known for their innovative use of color, intricate detail, and emotive expressions, helping to define early Italian Renaissance art.[2]
The 16th century saw the emergence of another influential school led by Dosso Dossi, who was known for his imaginative and often fantastical landscapes and subjects.[3] In addition to painting, Ferrara was a vibrant center for literature, music, and architecture. The Este family, as patrons of the arts, played a crucial role in fostering this environment, supporting not only visual artists but also poets and musicians.[1]
The House of Este in Ferrara had been present in northern Italy since the late 14th century, when Niccolò d'Este funded the University of Ferrara and started the construction of the Castello Estense.[4] Courtly culture played a significant role, as evidenced by the library's collection of chivalric stories reflecting interest in the medieval fable world. Additionally, materials on astrology and esotericism were prominent. Artistic pursuits flourished under the patronage of the Este. Pisanello, who produced several medals for Lionello d'Este, was a highly regarded artist. The Este court also supported both the ornate international style, exemplified by Belbello da Pavia (creator of the Bible of Niccolò d'Este), and the humanist style, represented by Taddeo Crivelli (creator of the Bible of Borso d'Este).[5]
Leonello d'Este's reign further expanded the cultural influence of the House of Este. His patronage encompassed a wide range of emerging artistic movements, fostering a unique environment within Italy. Educated by the humanist Guarino Veronese, Leonello cultivated relationships with prominent artists of the time, including Leon Battista Alberti, Jacopo Bellini, Piero della Francesca, and Andrea Mantegna (present in Ferrara between 1449 and 1451) and Pisanello. He also established a collection of antiquities and a tapestry manufactory, strengthening ties with Flanders. Several transalpine artists, such as Rogier van der Weyden and Jean Fouquet, resided in Ferrara during this period. The Este collections, containing works by these artists, attracted the attention of visiting Italian artists, facilitating a cross-pollination between the two artistic schools.[5]
Painting
The reign of Borso d'Este (1450–1471) witnessed the development of a distinct style in Ferrarese painting, which incorporated influences from diverse sources. Courtly culture played a role, alongside elements derived from the works of Piero della Francesca, particularly his use of perspective and light. The meticulous realism of Early Netherlandish painters and the influence of Donatello are also evident. Artists trained by the workshop of Francesco Squarcione further contributed to this artistic movement. Ferrarese artists elaborated upon this approach, integrating characteristics such as defined lines, heightened emotional expression, and a fusion of elegance and expressiveness.[5]
The development of the school of Ferrara is exemplified by the surviving decorations from the Studiolo di Belfiore. Commissioned by Lionello d'Este, the Studiolo was completed during the reign of Borso following the dismantling of the Delizia di Belfiore [it] palace. These decorations included intarsia work by the da Lendinara brothers and a cycle of paintings depicting the Muses on panel, which were dispersed or destroyed after the disappearance of the palace.[6]
Michele Pannonio's Thalia exemplifies the stylistic features of the Ferrarese school. The painting demonstrates connections to International Gothic, evident in the slender and elegant figure with flowing drapery that breaks at the knee. Additionally, elements of the Paduan Renaissance are incorporated, such as the expansive treatment of the throne and the inclusion of decorative details that evoke an earlier artistic style.[6]
Polyhymnia, formerly attributed to Francesco del Cossa and now believed to be created by an anonymous Ferrarese artist, shows instead the influence of Piero della Francesca's style, particularly in its composition, which is set against a distinct, open panorama.[6]
Cosmè Tura's Calliope [it] incorporates several features that became characteristic of the Ferrarese school. These include a strong compositional foundation established through clear perspective, a vantage point positioned below the figure, and an elaborately rendered throne. Additionally, the work integrates elements associated with the Paduan style of Francesco Squarcione, particularly in the use of light, which further accentuates a sense of heightened tension.[6]
Cosmè Tura is considered the founder of the Ferrarese school. He was later joined by Francesco del Cossa and Ercole de' Roberti. Despite distinct artistic personalities, their works share a common preference for meticulously rendered figures, sharply defined profiles, and the use of chiaroscuro, which creates an illusion of materials resembling embossed metal or polished stone.[4][6]
Cosmè Tura's artistic style is demonstrably present in the Ferrara Cathedral Organ Case, completed in 1469. This double-sided work depicts the Annunciation when opened and Saint George and the Princess when closed. The architectural elements within the Annunciation scene exhibit stylistic similarities to the work of Andrea Mantegna, particularly evident in the rendering of draperies and the inclusion of layered rock formations in the background landscape. Additionally, the work incorporates naturalistic elements, such as meticulously rendered details. Notably, the bas-reliefs positioned beneath the arches, depicting the Planets, allude to the courtly world. Tura skillfully integrates these diverse artistic influences into a cohesive artwork. The Saint George and the Princess panel features a dynamic composition characterized by clear and sharp outlines, contrasting highlights, and a heightened level of emotional expression achieved through the use of exaggerated facial features and animal figures[7]
Francesco del Cossa
Francesco del Cossa, March
Francesco del Cossa initially trained under Cosmè Tura but developed a distinct artistic approach. His work placed a greater emphasis on the teachings of Piero della Francesca, resulting in more composed and solemn figures. While his participation in the decoration of the Studiolo of the Palazzo Belfiore remains uncertain, he demonstrably contributed to the other major Ferrarese painting project, the Salone dei Mesi in Palazzo Schifanoia. This large cycle of frescoes involved the collaboration of several artists, probably under the direction of Cosmè Tura. The iconographic program, devised by Pellegrino Prisciano, drew upon astronomical, philosophical, and literary references. Originally, the decoration comprised twelve sections, one for each month, of which only seven survive today. Each section is divided into three tiers: the upper tier depicts the patron deity of the month surrounded by figures engaged in typical activities associated with that month. The central tier, featuring a blue background, displays the zodiac sign and three decans (astrological subdivisions). The lower tier showcases scenes related to the figure of Borso d'Este. By praising the Este lord and his ideals, the entire artwork served to celebrate the state of Ferrara, encompassing its various functions, from representation to governance.[7]
Francesco del Cossa's contribution to the Salone dei Mesi exemplifies this distinction. The March section, attributed to him, features solid, simplified forms, luminous colors, and a meticulously constructed perspective. This approach contrasts with Cosmè Tura's work, which often employs more stylized, almost crystallized figures.[7]
Ercole de' Roberti
Details of the Miracles of Saint Vincent Ferrer from the Griffoni Polyptych
The third prominent figure of the Ferrarese school is Ercole de' Roberti, who also contributed to the Salone dei Mesi. His section, September, exhibits a distinct stylistic approach characterized by geometrically stylized forms and figures imbued with a heightened sense of dynamism. This dynamic effect is achieved through the use of taut and angular contours, resulting in a portrayal that departs from naturalism but possesses a powerful expressive force.[8]
Ercole de' Roberti's panels depicting the Stories of Saint Vincent Ferrer (1473, Pinacoteca Vaticana) showcase an evolution in his artistic style. The architectural elements within these works exhibit a more rationalized organization compared to his earlier work. However, certain stylistic elements persist, including the use of fragmented figure outlines, forcefully rendered drapery, and dreamlike landscapes. These characteristics collectively contribute to a sense of unease, reflecting the anxieties of the period that ultimately led to a questioning of Renaissance ideals at the century's end.[8]
The Pala di Santa Maria in Porto [it] (1479–1481), created for the church of Santa Maria in Porto, near Ravenna, exemplifies a contrasting approach. In this work, the expressive tensions are confined to a few bas-reliefs adorning the base of the Virgin's throne. The overall composition prioritizes a sense of serene and balanced harmony, achieved through the use of symmetrical color arrangements. The dynamic architecture of the throne adds a lively element, while simultaneously revealing an open panorama at its base. This lower section alludes to the mythical foundation of the church and features small columns meticulously rendered with sensitivity to the light effects on marble.[8]
The 16th century
Dosso Dossi, Three Ages of Man (1515)
The artistic lineage established by the 15th-century masters of the Ferrarese school waned by the 1590s, with a decline in the production of high-caliber artworks. At the turn of the 16th century, the House of Este began to patronize artists with diverse training backgrounds. These artists were familiar with the latest artistic developments of the Roman and Venetian Renaissance.[9] Local artists sought out Venice as a result of the alliances established by the House of Este and their preferences. The works of Titian, who visited Ferrara on several occasions, exerted a significant influence on these artists. They incorporated elements of his style, particularly his use of imaginative narratives, which resonated with the city's cultivated literary environment.
The major court painters of this period were Il Garofalo, Ludovico Mazzolino, and Dosso Dossi. The presence of writers such as Ludovico Ariosto cultivated an atmosphere that favored fantastical imagery, a trend particularly evident in the design of Alfonso II d'Este's extraordinary studiolo and the camerini d'alabastro which was destroyed in 1598. Directed by Dosso Dossi, the decoration of the camerini included a series of remarkable Baccanali canvases by various artists including Giovanni Bellini and Titian. Dosso's style demonstrably absorbed certain elements from Titian, such as a rich color palette and expansive landscapes. However, Dosso also incorporated an inventive approach, particularly in his depictions of literary and mythological subjects. These mythological motifs by Dosso remained influential even for early 17th-century Emilian painters, such as Annibale Carracci.[10][9]
Lorenzo Costa, another prominent painter, established himself as the court painter in Mantua following the death of Andrea Mantegna.[11]
The latter half of the 16th century witnessed a period of artistic transition in Ferrara. Following the passing of Dosso Dossi and the decline in commissions from the Este court, the artistic community maintained a degree of vitality. This was due in part to the presence of the Filippi family. Among them, Sebastiano Filippi, also known as Bastianino, achieved recognition for his Last Judgment adorning the apse of Ferrara Cathedral. Later, the local artistic scene benefited from the contributions of Carlo Bononi. However, with the annexation of Ferrara by the Papal States and the subsequent transfer of the Este capital to Modena, the city's prominence as a leading artistic center diminished. This decline coincided with the dismantling of the famed camerini d'alabastro, resulting in the dispersal of its decorative elements to various museums.[12]
In 1443, Leonello d'Este commissioned Leon Battista Alberti to design the bell tower of the Duomo and to arrange the base of the equestrian monument to Niccolò III. However, Alberti's influence on the city's architectural landscape remained limited. The overall character of Ferrara's architecture continued to be defined by the late 14th-century tradition, particularly evident in the use of decorative terracotta. Due to defensive needs and the growing demand for housing, the interventions in the city by the Este focused mainly on urban planning issues rather than the construction of individual buildings. Ferrara was a medieval city with a core of narrow, winding streets, with squares and enclosed to the south by the Po di Volano [it] and to the north by the Giovecca canal, with the only landmarks being the Duomo, the Este residence and the Castle of San Michele.[13]
The mid-15th century witnessed the city's first significant expansion under the rule of Borso d'Este. However, it was Ercole I who spearheaded a transformative urban planning project heavily influenced by the Renaissance concept of the "ideal city." This project, known today as the Erculean Addition, is recognized as one of the earliest examples of its kind in Europe and has contributed to Ferrara's designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ercole commissioned the architect Biagio Rossetti to design a doubling of the city according to a new rational scheme, the Erculean Addition.[13]
The Giovecca canal was filled in and transformed into a wide avenue, the Corso della Giovecca [it]. This thoroughfare served as a vital connection between the new and old quarters of the city. Regular extensions were designed at the intersections with existing medieval streets, facilitating a smooth merging of the old and new urban fabric. Drawing on the principles outlined by the Roman architect Vitruvius, the new city area was laid out in an orthogonal grid pattern. This rational approach resulted in a network of streets that intersected at right angles. The orthogonal grid was further defined by two principal axes: Via degli Angeli (today Corso Ercole I), which traced an earlier route connecting the castello and Belfiore, and Via dei Prioni, which ran from the Po Gate to the Sea Gate in an east-west direction. This particular axis, which was completely new and fully "public" in flavor (as opposed to the other axis that remained linked to the passage of the dukes), was particularly emphasized with a large square: Piazza Ariostea.[13]
Biagio Rossetti, the architect behind the Erculean Addition, incorporated several features to ensure a harmonious integration with the existing city. He strategically placed areas of green space throughout the new district. These green spaces functioned as transitional zones, easing the visual and spatial shift between the orthogonal grid of the new layout and the organic street patterns of the older city. The overall design of the Erculean Addition prioritized the creation of contained and visually engaging architectural experiences rather than grand, open vistas at street ends. This approach fostered a sense of intimacy and encouraged exploration within the new city district. The intersection of the two main axes, Via degli Angeli and Via dei Prioni, is known as the "Quadrivio degli Angeli" and serves as a key example of Rossetti's design principles in action. Rossetti's most prominent structure within the Quadrivio is the Palazzo dei Diamanti, which derives its name from its unique facade, adorned with characteristic pointed stonework that creates a dynamic interplay of light and shadow. The corner facing the crossroads features ornately decorated slabs depicting candelabras and a projecting balcony.[13] The architectural style of the surrounding buildings is less ostentatious. However, architects employed various elements such as large portals and corner pilasters to introduce subtle variations and visual interest within the overall urban fabric.[13]
The urban layout implemented during the construction of the Erculean Addition garnered significant recognition for its innovative and enduring qualities. When compared to other Italian and European cities of the period, Ferrara's urban fabric presented a distinct character. Unlike many contemporary urban centers, Ferrara lacked a clear spatial segregation between the areas controlled by the ruling class and those inhabited by the general population. This absence of a rigidly defined social hierarchy within the urban layout stands in contrast to cities like Mantua or Pienza, where a clear division between dominant and subordinate spaces existed. Ferrara's approach instead emphasized a harmonious integration of these sectors, allowing each to retain its own distinctive character. While the full development of the Erculean Addition may have been envisioned for a later stage, factors such as limited population growth and a dynastic shift ultimately halted its complete realization. Despite this, the innovative and well-organized nature of the initial design has proven remarkably adaptable. Over the centuries, this new area of the city has successfully accommodated various urban changes, ensuring its continued relevance. [13]
