The Lushai Rising was the conflict between the British and the Lushai chiefs following the annexation of the Lushai Hills after the Chin-Lushai Expedition. It concerned the Western chiefs, the Eastern chief and Southern chiefs separately at different intervals. By 1895, the Lushai resistance and rising was considered over.
The annexation of the Lushai Hills saw punitive expeditions with a new goal to annex the Lushai Hills and establish a garrison to control the raiding of the Lushai tribes. However, after the expedition ended in April of 1890, not all Lushai chiefs supported the annexation and influential chiefs formed organized resistances as a result. Two offices of political officers were created in the North and South Lushai Hills. The tasks were to pacify the tribes and establish outposts.[1]
Western Lushai Rising
Murder of H.R Browne
Captain H.R Browne was appointed as political officer of the North Lushai Hills on 1 April, 1890. On 13 June 1890, Browne held a durbar of chiefs and announced that Lengpunga and Jarok would be deposed from chieftainship for a term of four years for their raid on Chengri Valley and fined 15 guns. Lengpunga had escaped the British during the Chin-Lushai Expedition and built up new settlements instead. Browne had to choose the punishment carefully to balance the interests of not antagonizing the chiefs and not showing weakness in the British occupation of the Lushai Hills.[2]
Browne, as a political officer of the North Lushai Hills, focussed on bringing stability with the development of roads. With the inability and insecurity to import coolies to construct the road, Browne opted to request quotas of Lushai men under the chiefs to work as coolies in forced labour. Khalkam who realized that revenue would be taken from the chiefs and their freedom to hunt their own jungles led him to cast aside his oath of fealty with Browne.[3] Khalkam held a meeting in his zawlbuk with other chiefs. The chiefs, Thangula, Thanruma, Lenkhunga, Lalrima, Minthang and Rankupa. Khalkam who was considered the head of the Western Lushai chiefs after his father, Sukpilal plotted to revolt against the British.[4]
Khalkam became antagonistic to the British as the older brother of Lengpunga. The burning of Lengpunga's villages and the establishments of outposts in the Lushai Hills made him resist British annexation.[5] Khalkam using his influence got another chief, Thansuma, with a war party to ambush Browne during his travels between Fort Aijal and Changsil. On 9 September 1890, Browne was accompanied by a small party of four police sepoys from Fort Aijal to his post in Changsil. In the ambush, three of his men were killed, and Browne was stabbed in the arm with 3 severe wounds and excessive bleeding.[6] Browne was mortally wounded and died 15 minutes later after being brought to the post.[7][8] Thanruma had, under a friendly pretence met with Browne and informed his accomplices of his whereabouts.[9] Thansuma, a subordinate chief to Khalkam, (not Thanruma, his brother) was chiefly responsible in the ambush and murder of Captain Browne. Thansuma had arranged for 300 Lushai warriors to surround Browne's small party. Only one man was able to escape the ambush and to Silchar and inform of the events concerning Captain Browne.[10]
Attack on Fort Aijal and Changsil Post
Fort Aijal, present-day Aizawl, in 1889.
Khalkam subsequently attacked Fort Aijal and overran the British stronghold.[5] Changsil was also besieged by the Lushais. Aijal Fort was commanded by Surgeon H.B. Melville, while Changsil Post was commanded by Lieutenant Harry W.G Cole.[6] Harry Cole was the commandant of the Surma Valley Military Police Battalion, which had 170 military police personnel with him.[11] At Fort Aijal, the British were in the process of building a second stockade before being ambushed without prior warning. The party was driven out into the main stockade, which was surrounded by the Lushais, who attacked for several hours. The bodies of the Lushais revealed that the whole countryside was in revolt.[7] British reports commented that it was not only Khalkam and Thanruma opposing violently but the whole whole of the Western Lushai Hills. Heavy downpour had stifled communication between the British and made the terrain difficult to navigate.[12]
The officials in Cachar sent two despatchments to relieve Fort Aijal and Changsil.[12] The relief force sonsited of 200 men from the Surma Valley Military Police from Silchar led by A.C Tytler and Lieutenant R.R Swinton of the 44th Benagl Infantry. Mr A.W. Shuttleworth, the assistant superintendent of Police also accompanied the force.[11] One of the detachments was attacked en-route while navigating the river to Fort Aijal. Lieutenant Swinton was killed on 26th September while navigating the force up the river to Changsil, with many men wounded.[5][13][11] After the relief of Changsil post, H.W.G Cole and A.C Tytler marched towards Fort Aijal with Liuetenant Watson of the 40th Bengal Infantry. They reached Fort Aijal on 4th October and relieved Dr Melville's defense.[11] Surgeon Captain Melville and Lieutenant H.W.G Cole were credited for defending Aijal and Changsil by holding out for reinforcements via the Dhaleswari river.[9] Chief Commissioner of Assam, Quinton, commented on Melville's leadership and novelty in military affairs and handling the siege with 110 native officers and 43 individuals who suffered from the weather, food shortages and lack of warm clothing. Melville's diary stated that 5 out of 6 men had no warm clothing at all during the month long siege.[11]
R.B. McCabe
The death of H.R Browne had led to R.B McCabe being assigned as the new political officer of the North Lushai Hills.[13] He had been transferred from the post of Deputy Commissioner of Lakhimpur.[11] He set out with Captain Williamson of the Commissariat and arrived in Changsil on 5 October 1890. He relieved A.W Shuttleworth, who was in command of pacification between Browne's death and McCabe's appointment.[11] McCabe was nominated based on his past achievements in dealing with the Naga tribes.[13] McCabe was responsible for capturing Lengpunga.[3][13] McCabe accompanied the Surma Valley Police Battalion to bring about the surrender and submission of the Western Lushai chiefs. The operation occurred between 16 November to 28 November 1890.[14] A combined movement of forces from Aijal and Changsil descended on Khalkam's capital settlement. Khalkam fled his village before the fighting began.[15] Khalkam's settlement was overpowered, and on 23 November, he surrendered unconditionally to McCabe.[14] McCabe would later write that pacification of the hills required the removal of influential chiefs. For the Western Lushai Chiefs, McCabe classified Khalkam as the most influential. His eldest brothers, Lengpunga, Sailenpui, Thanruma and Thangula, were classified as responsible agents. The brothers of Khalkam, such as Lengkhunga, Rankupa, Lalhrima, Lalsavuta and Lalluia, were classified as mere boys. The younger brothers, such as Tolera, Hminghthanga, Thawmpawnga, Thalien and Lenkhai, were called dependents of Sukpilal. Sailenpui was not punished due to his good disposition to the British. Khalkam, Lengpunga and Thagula were chosen to be deported as a decapitation operation.[16]
Khalkam was sent along with his brothers Lengpunga and Thangula to Hazaribagh Jail, where he and Lengpunga committed suicide. After Khalkam's arrest, fifteen more western chiefs were captured while some surrendered, like Khama, Tolera, and Lenkhunga.The rest of the Western Lushai chiefs(namely Sukpilal's sons), such as Lalhrima, Sailenpui, and Thangula, surrendered as well.[14][11] By the end of the year all offending villages had been destroyed by McCabe. An estimated 50 Lushais were killed through the operations of McCabe's pacification campaign. Fines were implemented on offending settlements and guns were confiscated from chiefs to disarm the Lushai tribes.[11]
Investigations after the surrender of the Western Lushais implicated Lienkhunga as the conspirator who led to Captain Browne's murder and Lieutenant Swinton's death. Lalhrima was implicated on account of surrendering Captain Browne's possessions and personal property.[11]
The Eastern Lushai Chiefs did not aid the Western Lushai Chiefs in their 1890 rising. It was in their interest to see the western chiefs defeated and weakened instead. During the rainy season, the British didn't make a lot of contact with eastern chiefs enabling them not to be taxed or levied for coolie quotas. In 1891, McCabe announced a house tax of one rupee per house. In response the Eastern Lushai chiefs made a bid for independence.[17] The Eastern Lushais raided Barunicherra Tea estate with 42 people being killed with 13 captives. A follow up raid at Monierkhal was also made. The political officer of the North Lushai Hills succeeded in preventing the western chiefs from joining the rising.[18]
McCabe recorded that two factions of the Eastern Lushai chiefs would have to be dealt with. The first faction consisted of Vanhnuailiana's family of Lalbura, Poiboi, Bungteya and Lemkham. The only powerful chief in Vonolel's family was Lalbura.[19] Lalbura had refused to submit to the payment of house tax or the supply of coolies and rice. McCabe had ordered Lalbura to supply 100 coolies which he refused. As a result, McCabe decided to visit the village.[20] McCabe moved and set up camp at Lalbura's village to collect revenue and maintain a base of operations.[19] The eastern Lushai's were not hostile to the new house taxes with the exceptions of Lalbura, Bungteya and Poiboi.[17][21] The second faction would be the descendants of Vuta.[19]
The British garrison forcibly entered and occupied Lalbura's village. The Lushais burnt down their houses with the intention to trapping the British into a hilly ravine. The British maintained their volleys and scattered the Lushai attackers. McCabe sent a heliographic message to G.H. Loch at Fort Aijal to inform western chiefs not to shelter the eastern chiefs. The operations against Lalbura continued from 3-17 March, 1892. The Lushais would also ambush the logistics and transports of supplies to the British.[22] Forces from Poiboi, Lemkham and Bungteya aided lalbura in his siege of McCabes position between 1 March and 10 April 1892. On 4 April, Lalbura and Poiboi raided the Boruncherra tea estate in Hailakandi to divert the British forces in vain. The raid saw 45 individuals killed and 13 captured.[23] Due to the nature of guerilla warfare the British found too difficult to locate the attackers head on.[17] McCabe was reinforced from the 18th Bengal Infantry from Aijal.[22]} Lalbura's stronghold in the East would be sacked as retribution for the assaults.[18] Before the end of May, Lalbura became a fugitive, and the resistance of Lalbura's family began to cease.{{sfn|Reid|1942|p=23} Lalbura would eventually surrender in 1896 after being a fugitive since 1892. This is due to the punitive expedition against Kairuma in 1895.[24]
McCabe began a practice of burning down villages and specifically targeting grain storages to force the Lushais to cooperate.[25] Before attacking Poiboi in 1892, McCabe wrote:[26]
I cannot reiterate too strongly how firmly I am convinced that burning a Lushai village and withdrawing is no punishment. We must hunt the enemy down from camp to camp and jhum to jhum, destroy his crops and granaries and force them by want and privation to accede to our terms. We cannot expect the chance of a fair stand-up fight and in Jungle warfare of the type met with in these hills, we must anticipate that one's losses in actual fighting will exceed those of the enemy. Exposure and starvation are our strongest allies and with their assistance I believe that the Lushais will very shortly be craving for peace.
— R.B McCabe, Note from R.B McCabe
Military aid was approved in putting down the Eastern Lushai Rising. The 18th Bengal Infantry, under Lieutenant Colonel R.H.F. Rennick, brought a force of 300 to Fort Aijal. The force relived the military police in handling operations in the area. A 14 mile road was built from Aijal to Sonai to maintain communication with the headquarters. Rennick's force maintained logistics and supply to McCabe's operations in the Eastern Lushai Hills.[23]
In Mid-April, McCabe and Loch with 400 military police personnel moved against the villages of Kairuma and Poiboi. On the other hand, Shakespear with 200 men advanced north.[27] Poiboi's village was stormed at a climb of over 2,00 feet. The village consisted of 722 houses. As a result, McCabe captured Poiboi on 14 April.[23] On 10 May, a column under May Captain Rose joined with Shakespear in skimirhses at Daokoma's villages.[27] The Eastern Lushais after becoming desperate attempted to request help from the western chiefs who were historical enemies with them. Vuta's son, Kairuma sent his upa to Sailenpui. Sailenpui refused due to the examples made of resisting chiefs like his brothers Khalkam and Lengpunga.[25] On 7 May, Bungteya was captured.[23] McCabe continued his pacification campaign and captured Bungteya, Lalruya, Tankama, Vangpunga, and Poiboi's mother. The campaign lasted from 10 April to 8 June 1892. As a result the Eastern Lushais agreed to pay the house tax and to supply coolie labour to the British.[25]
C.S Murray, the first political officer of the Southern Lushai Hills were to pacify the tribes and to implement the policies of house tax and coolie quotas. Murray's conduct with a chief known as Zakapa was recorded as the beginning of the Southern Lushai revolt.[13][18] Resistances were also made by chieftesses such as Ropuiliani.
Zakapa's Revolt
The British originally recorded that Murray demanded coolies from Zakapa, who was originally friendly to Murray. Zakapa had agreed to supply the labourers to Murray without any issues. Zakapa's subordinate chief, Daokopa, provided 59 labourers for the coolie service.[28] On the third day of Murray's meeting with Zakapa, a disagreement escalated into violence.[13] Proceedings of the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal ascribe more than a coolie issue for the cause of an outbreak. Murray had requested two girls from Zakapa as sexual companions for himself and Mr Taylor. Murray attempted to explain his intentions by threatening to Zakapa that failure to do so would see his wife and the wives of other chiefs be taken from them to fulfil this demand. Zakapa, in the belief of his threat, acted for the security of his wife.[28]
The day after Murray's immoral request, both Lalthuama and Zakapa refused to meet with Murray. Murray and Taylor subsequently trespassed and entered a conference between Lalthuama and Zakapa in their zawlbuk. Murray ordered the other chiefs to leave, and Zakapa obliged despite having the power to attack Murray. Murray and Zakapa held a solitary conversation afterwards.[29] After the conversation, Murray went to the rice stock of the village and set it on fire. This action aggravated the Lushais, who began to attack him. Murray's guards were killed due to being surrounded on all sides by Lushai gunmen shooting at them. Taylor was severely wounded in the attack while Murray escaped. Being vastly outnumbered, Murray opted to escape through a hilly stream, leaving behind his men, ammunition, money and supplies.[30] Subadar Sangram Singh and Havildar Chandra Sing Thapa of the Chittagong F.P distinguished themselves in the skirmish with Subedar losing an arm. As a result both were rewarded the Indian Order of Merit.[31]
Captain Hutchinson made an advance on the failure of Murray to pacify the settlement of Zakapa.[13] A meeting was also intended between the political officers on 22 February 1892. On 25 February, McCabe sent a letter for Murray stating his position. Murray turned down the meeting and hence affected the administrations faith in him as a political officer. Hutchinson's attack on Zakapa's village failed to capture Zakapa.[18] However, success was made in capturing allied chiefs of Zakapa such as Lalchuma, Dokopa, Kapchunga and Leinkhama who were arrested but liberally treated.[30]
Ropuiliani's Resistance
Another chief resisting the British was Ropuiliani. Ropuiliani was the mother of Lalthuama and the wife of Vandula and daughter of the famous Vonolel. Ropuiliani had seen the impact of the British expedition on his relatives. Many of her sons and brothers died resisting the British. The suppression of the Chin-Lushai Expedition saw the Vandula's descendants become destitute. All of the leaders of settlements were widows with the exception of the two settlements of Aitur and Malthuna. Ropuiliani's influence spread to her son lalthuama who withheld cooperation with the British. Lalthuama withheld tributes and labour quotas.[32]
Ropuiliani had been cooperating with Daokoma in a conspiracy to attack the British. Ropuiliani had complained of an interpreter stationed in her settlement who she felt bothered by. This encouraged her warrior to execute the interpreter. Reports of coolies cut up also encouraged a British response. In August at the peak of the rain season, Captain Shakespear, Pugh and Hutchinson arrived at Ropuiliani's village. The party arrived in secret and managed to capture both Ropuiliani and her son Lalthuama. Daokoma who conspired with Ropuiliani had left the village a day before the party arrived to arrange another uprising. Ropuiliani and Lalthuama were deported and their villages were fined.[33]
Vansanga's resistance
After the death of Ropuiliani in prison, Shakespear was besieged in an outpost he occupied at Chhiphir, a village he had captured from Vansanga. Captain Shakespeare was able to hold off with the loyalty and friendship of Chief Lalluauva. While Shakespear was besieged, Vansanga's mother the chieftainess of Zote, laid a trap for Shakespear by inviting him to visit her claiming to wish to be on friendlier terms. Shakespeare's interpreter, Pu Dara, warned Shakespear to not trust her as the chance of deceit is high. The force set out with Shakespear and were ambushed but managed to overpower the attackers and captured the settlement of Zote. Bugler Doluta saved Captain Shakespear's life by shooting a hidden musketman inside the Chief's house.[34]
Shakespeare continued further where he met an older Lushai woman escaping the village of Lungrang. Lungrang had been collecting Lushais to amass an attack on Shakespear. At Lungrang village, the Lushai army had positioned themselves at the top of a precipice above Shakespeare and his party. Dara warned Shakespear to not force the attack.[34] The Lushais continued to threaten Shakespear after he shot some rounds into the sky. Shakespeare's engineers found another approach to the rock heights to the rear while the attention was placed on the front facing section. 30 men attacked the Lushais from the rear which scattered the warriors and allowed occupation of the village. Pu Dara later suggested that the party capture Vansanga, the area's biggest and most elusive chief.[35]
Shakespear and his party arrived at Vansanga's settlement Cheribawk after investigating villages for information. The party staged a nighttime ambush and captured Vansanga, who was drunk and asleep. Vansanga was bound and jailed in Fort Lungleh before being released in bad health. Vansanga later died in his village.[35]
Kairuma's Punitive Expedition
By the end of 1892, the West, East and South Lushai Hills had been effectively dealt with. Combined resistance was rendered unlikely with the responses of the British officers. Kairuma was the exception of a chief who remained unbeaten. A.N Davis feared Kairuma, who was the unpunished chief throughout the Chin-Lushai Expedition and the Lushai Rising.[36]
In 1895, Kairuma refused to supply coolie labour and refused to pay the fine for failing to do so. As a result, forces from Aizawl and Burma coordinated an attack on Kairuma the same day.[37] G.H Loch with Lieutenant Wilson of the 44th Gurkha Rifles and Lieutenant Clay of the 43rd Gurkha rifles and 300 North Lushai military police worked with Shakespear's column. There was no resistance.[38] Kairuma's village was burned down with his gayal, and animals seized. Kairuma surrendered by giving up his guns and paying all his fines.[37]
End of the Rising
Superintendent of the North Lushai Hills, A Porteus, commented that the long series of Lushai expeditions had ended, and no further operations on the scale of subjugating the chiefs would be necessary again in May 1896.[39] On Porteus' report on the history of 1896-1897, he comments that:[40]
I leave the district with practically all the Chiefs reconciled to Government, and with, I believe, not the least likelihood of any future distrubance of the peace.... Lalbura received me in his village in March like any other chief, while Kairuma met me outside his village, no sepoys, however, being present.
— A. Porteus, Report on the History of 1896-1897
Kairuma's defiance was considered the last form of resistance to British rule as the Lushai Hills began to become influenced by their new conditions such as missionaries, written language, schools, etc.[37]
