List of obsolete occupations

Decision flowchart for obsolete occupations
Flowchart to determine if an occupation should be included in the list of obsolete occupations

This is a list of obsolete occupations. To be included in this list an occupation must be completely, or to a great extent, obsolete. For example, there are still a few lamplighters retained for ceremonial or tourist purposes, but in the main the occupation is now obsolete. Similarly, there are still some manual switchboard operators and elevator operators which are required for historic equipment or security reasons, but these are now considered to be obsolete occupations. Occupations which appear to be obsolete in industrialized countries may still be carried out commercially in other parts of the world, for example charcoal burner.

To be included in this list an obsolete occupation should in the past have employed significant numbers of workers (hundreds or thousands as evidenced by, for example, census data).[1][2] Some rare occupations are included in this list, but only if they have notable practitioners, for example alchemist or phrenologist.

Terms which describe groups of people carrying out a variety of roles, but which are not specific occupations, are excluded from this list even if they are obsolete, for example conquistador or retinue. Terms describing positions which have a modern equivalent, and are thus not obsolete occupations, are excluded from this list, for example a dragoman would now be termed a diplomat; similarly a cunning woman would now be termed a practitioner of folk medicine. Terms describing a state of being rather than an occupation are excluded, for example castrato. Specialist terms for an occupation, even if they are obsolete, are excluded, for example the numerous historic terms for cavalry and courtesan. Foreign language terms for existing occupations are excluded, for example korobeinik or Laukkuryssä which are types of peddler. All types of forced labour, such as slavery and penal labour are excluded from this list as they are not paid occupations.

Only occupations which are notable, well-defined, and adequately documented in secondary sources are included in this list.

Reasons for occupations to become obsolete

An occupation may become obsolete for a single reason, or for a combination of reasons. Reasons for occupations to become obsolete fall into a number of groups:

  • Cultural/fashion change, for example hoop skirt and crinoline manufacturers were significant employers in the 1850s and 1860s but they declined significantly in later years as fashions changed.[3]
  • Child safety/security change, for example climbing boys became unacceptable because of the danger to children involved in the job.[4]
  • Debunked as pseudoscience, for example phrenologists[5]: 266 [6]: 137 
  • Economic change, for example the reduction in domestic servants caused by increased wages and alternative employment opportunities.[7]: 171 
  • Environmental change: over-farming, over-exploitation and deforestation. For example, the trading of ivory has become heavily restricted over recent decades, especially in the Western world, following the international CITES agreement and local legislation, which has put ivory carvers out of work.[8]
  • Legal, political and regulatory change, for example the Victorian-era law that made available more cadavers to medical schools, thus signalling the death-knell to body snatchers.[9]
  • Social change, e.g. the Workhouse as a way of dealing with the poor, or the elimination of much child labour so that they could attend school.[10]
  • Technological/scientific/process efficiency change,[11][12] for example making lime in factories on a large scale rather than by lime-burners on a small scale. Another example is the continuous changes in occupations in the textile industry in the 19th century as a result of mechanization.[13]: 247  In recent times, the workplace impact of artificial intelligence has arisen as a concern for widespread job changes and/or decline.[14][15]

List of obsolete occupations

The table lists information about obsolete occupations

Occupation: name of the occupation
Description: description of the occupation
Reason: reason for the occupation becoming obsolete
Type: primary type of reason for the occupation becoming obsolete
Cultur - Cultural change (includes fashion change)
Child - Child safety change
Debunk - Debunked as pseudoscience
Econom - Economic change
Envir - Environmental change
Legal - Legal change (includes political change and regulatory change)
Social - Social change
Tech - Technological change (includes scientific change and process efficiency change)
Start: century that the occupation started, for example -3 indicates 3rd century BC and -99 indicates prehistoric
End: century that the occupation ended, for example 15 indicates 15th century AD
Image: image of the occupation

Key:    Common occupation      Rare occupation  

Occupation Description Reason Type Start End Image
Alchemist Alchemists attempted to create and purify certain materials. Common aims were the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble metals" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease.[16] The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Alchemy was pushed aside by chemistry by the middle of the 18th century.[17] Debunk 3[18]: 10  20 Painting of an alchemist performing an experiment
Alewife An alewife, also brewess[19]: 21, 87  or brewster,[20] was a woman who brewed, and often also sold, ale as a trade. The word alewife is first recorded in England in c. 1400.[21] Women have been active in brewing since ancient times. In medieval times men entered the brewing trade previously dominated by women. Unlike women, men had the legal, capital, social, and cultural resources to command a quickly commercializing industry.[20]: 75  Social -70 17 Engraving of an alewife serving beer
Alnager An alnager was an official responsible for the inspection of the shape and quality of manufactured woolen cloth. Their duty was to measure each piece of cloth, and to affix a stamp to show that it was of the necessary size and quality.[22] Some alnagers collected their fees without carrying out their inspections, and some accepted bribes to pass inferior cloth. The alnage system was eventually abolished for being corrupt and ineffective.[23] Legal 12 18 Fabric with an alnage seal
Armourer (chain mail) Armourers constructed chain mail by riveting together iron or steel rings.[24] Chain mail was more flexible and less tailored to an individual than the later plate armour. For the wealthy, plate armour was preferred to chain mail as it provided better protection, however chain mail continued to be used by other soldiers until modern firearms rendered it ineffective in preventing serious injury.[25] Tech -3 17 refer to caption
Armourer (plate armour) Armourers constructed a suit of armour by fitting armour to the individual wearer like a tailor.[26] A full suit of high quality fitted armour was very expensive and restricted their clientele exclusively to the wealthy.[27] The development of the arquebus in the 15th century and the musket in the 16th century, which were able to penetrate plate armour,[28] rendered the occupation of plate armourer obsolete.[29] Tech 14 17 Armourer's workshop
Ash burner The ash burner burnt wood for industrial purposes. From the ashes, the potash needed in dyeing, in soapmaking and in glassmaking could be made by leaching and boiling. The occupation declined with potash being increasingly made in chemical works.[30] Potash as an industrial raw material was progressively replaced by potassium minerals obtained by mining. Tech -25[31] 19 Campfire with ashes
Baby farmer Baby farming was accepting custody of a child in exchange for payment. For unscrupulous practitioners, it was more profitable if the child quickly died so that the process could be repeated.[32]: 2–8 [33]: 29 [34] The practice was controversial and quickly fell into disrepute because of sensational court cases.[32]: 56–57  It was eliminated by the passage of laws regulating the child-care industry.[35][36][37] Child 18 19 Three newspaper images of baby farming
Between maid A between maid (or 'tweeny') combined the duties of a housemaid with those of a kitchen maid. She was the most junior member of staff and did all of the least desirable jobs.[7]: 22, 72, 197 [38]: 38  The between maid was paid the least of all the domestic staff.[7]: 151  The reduction in domestic staff, and the availability of better paid and more desirable employment, ended the occupation. Econom 14 20 Room interior with dining table
Body snatcher Body snatchers, also known as resurrectionists, illicitly removed corpses from burial sites for subsequent sale to, for example, anatomy schools.[9][39]: 144–146  Legal changes,[a] and embalming, which was in regular use by the 1880s and which enabled medical schools to keep bodies for months, led to the demise of body snatching.[40] Legal 14 19 Body snatchers in a cemetery
Breaker boy A breaker boy was a coal-mining worker who separated impurities from coal by hand in a coal breaker.[41][42]: 89–95  The job was hazardous and exhausting.[43]: 47–50 [44] A combination of child labour laws,[42]: 104–113  and technological innovations in coal purification,[42]: 113–117  lessened the demand for breaker boys, but the practice did not end until the early 1920s. Child 19 20 refer to caption
Brush maker A brush maker manufactured brushes, brooms, and mops.[45]: 20–21 [46]: 88–95  Another term for a broom maker was a broomsquire.[47] Mechanisation during the Industrial Revolution eventually made it uneconomic to manufacture brushes and brooms outside of a factory.[48] The vacuum cleaner also provided competition.[49] Tech -35[48] 20 Engraving of brush-maker's workshop
Buckle-maker Buckle-makers made metal buckles for shoes, harnesses, saddles and other uses.[50]: 219 [51] Separate buckles remained fashionable until they were abandoned in the years after the French Revolution.[3]: 322  Cultur 17 19 Advertisement card for a buckle-maker
Burlak A burlak was a riverboat or barge hauler in the Russian Empire. It was a seasonal occupation.[52][53] The occupation also existed in other European countries. With the proliferation of steamships the demand for burlaks diminished and they basically disappeared by the end of the 19th century.[52] Tech 16 20 Painting of Russian burlaks
Cavalryman A cavalryman was a soldier who fought mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms.[54] The first engagements of World War I showed that cavalry were ineffective against modern infantry and artillery. During the 20th century all cavalry, apart from ceremonial units, were phased out or mechanized.[55]: 250  Tech -15 20 Mounted cavalryman with lance
Cat's meat man The cat's meat man (or woman) sold meat, frequently horse meat, for cats and dogs from a hand-cart.[56][57][58] The occupation was a type of hawker. In the late 19th century commercial cat and dog food became available and this gradually displaced horse meat as the normal diet for pets.[59] Social 19 20 Street scene with a cat begging for food from a vendor
Climbing boy Climbing boys (or girls) were chimney sweeps' apprentices. Being small they could get into spaces too restricted for adults to fit into. The job was arduous and dangerous.[4][60]: 249–254 [39]: 176–177  The occupation was controversial because it exposed children to multiple risks. Progressive legal restrictions eliminated the practice by the end of the 19th century.[61][62][b] Child 17 19 Chimney sweep and a climbing boy
Coach-maker A coach-maker was a person who constructed horse-drawn passenger-carrying vehicles.[46]: 1–9  Typically the wheels for the coach or carriage were made separately by a wheelright. When horse-drawn coaches were superseded by motorized vehicles, and handmade motor coachwork gave way to mass-produced vehicles, the number of coach-makers diminished significantly.[63] Tech 14 20 Engraving of a coach-maker in his workshop
Coachman A coachman was an employee who drove a coach or carriage, a horse-drawn vehicle designed for the conveyance of passengers.[64]: 972–977  A coachman could be assisted by a footman or a postilion. In the 20th century cars and buses replaced horse-drawn coaches making the occupation of coachman obsolete except for ceremonial and tourist purposes.[65]: 173  Tech 14 20 Two coaches outside a public house
Colporter A colporter was a travelling salesman in publications, books, and religious tracts.[66] In 1856, the American Tract Society had 547 colporteurs working full-time.[67] The wider availability of publications during the late 19th century made the personal, overland delivery and sale of printed literature uneconomic. Econom 16 20 Peddler and boy on horseback
Computer A (human) computer performed calculations for mathematical tables, in astronomy, in weather forecasting and other fields.[68] Some human computers transitioned to being programmers.[69] As calculators, and later (machine) computers, became more prevalent, (human) computers were replaced because they were slower,[68]: 296  more expensive, and more prone to error. Tech 17 20 Female worker writing a calculation on a wall-board
Cooper A cooper was a craftsman who produced wooden casks, barrels, and other similar containers from timber staves.[70][71] The demand for wooden beer barrels fell after the 1940s, when they were replaced by metal drums and glass bottles. This led to a great decline in the need for coopers.[71]: 175–177  Tech -26 20 Cooper working on the inside of a barrel
Cork-cutter A cork-cutter cut bottle corks (and other items such as flotation devices) from sheets of cork.[72]: 83  In the middle of the 19th century, mechanization of the cork-cutting process rendered individual cork-cutting uneconomic.[73] Tech 17 19[74] Engraving of cork-cutter's workshop
Crossing sweeper A crossing sweeper was a street sweeper who swept a path ahead of people crossing dirty urban streets in exchange for a gratuity.[60]: 257–291  Attitudes to crossing sweepers were mixed.[75] A combination of street sweeping, buses and the replacement of horses by motor vehicles made the occupation uneconomic. Social 19 20 Painting of a crossing sweeper boy with a lady client
Doffer A doffer, often a child,[76]: 27  replaced full bobbins in textile mills. The job was noisy, dangerous and often led to respiratory diseases.[43]: 35  In the United States the practice of employing children ended in 1933.[77]: 476  In modern mills doffing machines have replaced humans.[78]: 596  Child 18 20 Adolescent girl doffer in a cotton mill
Dog whipper A dog whipper was a church official who removed unruly dogs from church grounds during services. They were most prominent in areas of England and continental Europe.[79][39]: 123–125  As bringing dogs to religious services became less acceptable, and with the later advent of animal shelters, the occupation of dog whipper became obsolete.[80]: 12  Social 16 19 Portrait of a dog whipper sitting in a church
Drummer (military) A drummer was responsible for the military drums used on the battlefield. Drums, often accompanied by fifers, were used for troops marching in step, and to signal commands from officers to troops.[81]: 19  In 1914 drums were still in use by the Austro-Hungarian army. The unsuitability of drums for modern warfare was quickly realised and in September 1914 the drums were withdrawn, and the drummers transferred to other duties.[82] Child 13[c] 20 Painting of an English drummer boy
Drysalter A drysalter was a dealer in chemical products that were used in other local occupations, especially the dyeing of cloth.[83][84] They might also have sold pickles, dried meat or related items.[85] As local manufacturing businesses consolidated into larger regional factories,[86]: 83  the need for local supply by drysalters declined, leading to the occupation becoming obsolete. Econom 18 20 Plaque commemorating the site of a drysalting business
Elevator operator An elevator operator ran a manually operated elevator. Elevator operators still work in some historic or specialist installations and fill modern niches, such as in luxury hotels and Japanese department stores.[87] The introduction of automated elevators combined with operator strikes led to the almost complete elimination of elevator operators.[88] Tech 19 20 Female operator at an elevator door
Elocutionist An elocutionist was a speaker, entertainer, and teacher of elocution. The elocutionist's performances featured the reading of passages from literature with accompanying gestures.[89] Elocutionists started to fall into disrepute at the end of the 19th century. Elocution declined because of changing public tastes, a new academic approach to speech, and doubtful practices of less skillful readers and "entertainers".[90]: 491  Debunk 18 20 Drawing of elocutionist speaking to two boys
Escheator The escheator was the official responsible for enforcing the rights of the Crown as feudal lord. The escheator would claim and administer real property if a person died intestate or committed a felony.[91][92]: 21–25  The escheator's inquisition process was vulnerable to malpractice, and they were suspected of sometimes defrauding the Crown by returning inaccurate valuations or revenues.[93] The Tenures Abolition Act 1660 ended feudal land tenure. Legal 12 17 Coat of arms of an English escheator
Expressman An expressman packed, managed, and ensured delivery of a valuable cargo.[94]: 27–31  An expressman travelled on horseback, by stagecoach, and later by train.[95] Government postal workers, and eventually parcel workers, took over the management of mail and packages in the early 20th century replacing expressmen.[94]: 83–85  Econom 19 20 Engraving of an expressman on horseback
Fifer A fifer was a non-combatant foot soldier who originally played the fife during combat.[96]: 1–9  The fifer sounded signals and also kept time during marches with the drummers. Fifers were often boys too young to fight.[97] The concept of unarmed children on the battlefield became unacceptable in the 19th century, leading to the occupation of fifer becoming obsolete.[96]: 160–161  Child 18 19 Painting of a boy fifer
Footman A footman was a male domestic worker employed to wait at table and to ride on or run beside his employer's coach or carriage to provide security and assistance with baggage.[64]: 964–970  A footman could perform other duties, such as being a guest's valet, as directed by the butler.[98] Footmen were something of a luxury as they performed a less essential role than the cook, maid or butler. Once a common position in great houses, the footman became much rarer after World War I as fewer households could afford a large staff. The role of footman is now largely an historic one.[99] Econom 14 20 Drawing of a footman with a serving dish
Fuller A fuller cleansed and thickened wool using their hands and feet.[39]: 70–72  In the Middle Ages water-powered fulling mills were introduced to replace manual fulling.[100][101] Manual and mechanical fulling co-existed from the 10th to the 20th centuries, with manual fulling gradually replaced by the fulling mill.[39]: 72 [100]: 33–34  Tech -8[d] 20 Engraving of ten women fulling cloth with their feet
Garden hermit A garden hermit was an employee dwelling alone in a small building on the estate of a landowner. The hermit would be contracted to remain on site for a long period, and would be cared for, consulted for advice, or viewed for entertainment.[102] Keeping a garden hermit had practical problems for both the employer and the employee, and went out fashion in the middle of the 19th century.[39]: 146–149  Cultur 18 19 Hermit at the door of his dwelling
Gladiator A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals.[103] Gladiatorial games were gradually phased out because of their high cost and because they were disapproved of by prominent Christians like Augustine of Hippo.[104] Econom -3 5 Mosaic with fighting gladiators
Gong farmer A gong farmer, also known as a nightman, dug out and removed human excrement (night soil) from privies and cesspits.[105][39]: 87–89 [106][e] Modern sewage disposal systems largely eliminated the occupation by the end of the 19th century. Emptying cesspits is now usually carried out by vacuum trucks. Tech 9 20 Woman with two buckets of night-soil
Hall boy The hall boy was the most junior male member of staff and was assigned the dirtiest and heaviest jobs. He usually slept in the servants' hall.[38]: 41 [107] His female equivalents were the between maid and the scullery maid. Long hours, poor pay and conditions,[108] and better employment opportunities outside domestic service combined to eliminate this occupation. Econom 14 20 Interior with dining table
Ice cutter An ice cutter collected surface ice from lakes and rivers during the Winter for storage in an ice house.[109]: 15–59  The ice was later delivered to customers by an iceman. The era of widespread refrigeration and air conditioning technology, together with consumer concerns about impure ice,[110]: 110–111  largely put an end to the ice trade.[109]: 143, 159  Tech 17 20 Newspaper page depicting stages in ice cutting
Iceman An iceman sold or delivered ice from a wagon, cart, or motor-truck.[109]: 125–135  In the Winter many icemen were employed as ice cutters. The introduction of the electrical refrigerator allowed customers to make and store their own ice, so that delivery by an iceman was no longer economic.[109]: 143–147 [110]: 210–220  Tech 17 20 Deliveryman with a large ice block on his shoulder
Illuminator of manuscripts An illuminator of manuscripts, sometimes called a limner, created copies of books and manuscripts by lettering and illuminating the text. In the early period the illuminator normally mixed their own pigments.[111][112][39]: 26–28  With the invention of the printing press, copies of books could be produced more quickly and less expensively than those produced by the scribe and illuminator. This technological change led to the occupation becoming obsolete.[113][114]: 256  Tech -19[113]: 20  16 Mural of book illuminator
Ivory carver Ivory carvers carved animal teeth or tusks with sharp cutting tools to produce decorative objects.[115] As ivory-producing species have become endangered through hunting, legislation has reduced the availability of ivory and hence the demand for ivory carvers.[8] Envir -99 20 Photograph of two Japanese ivory carvers
Keypunch operator Keypunch operators keyed data or programs onto physical media, for example punched cards, so that it could be read by machines, for example computers.[116] Keypunch operators were made obsolete by data entry systems which allowed data and program originators to enter it directly instead of writing it on forms to be entered by keypunch operators.[117] Tech 19 20 Two female keypunch operators
Kitchen maid The kitchen maid assisted the cook with the preparation of meals and was responsible for numerous cleaning tasks.[7]: 225 [38]: 36  In houses with large domestic staffs she was assisted by the scullery maid. Attitudes to domestic work changed in the late 19th century as other employment opportunities arose.[7]: 171  As domestic staffs shrank, the cook would often be retained at the expense of the kitchen maid. Econom 14 20 Painting of a kitchen maid peeling root vegetables
Knocker-up A knocker-up's job was to rouse sleeping people so they could get to work on time. A knocker-up was often employed to wake up workers on shifts, particularly in factory areas, but was also sometimes self-employed.[72]: 164  As alarm clocks became less expensive and more reliable, there was no longer a need to pay a knocker-up.[118][119] Tech 18 20 Man waking people by knocking on a bedroom window with a long pole
Lady's companion A lady's companion was a woman of genteel birth who lived with a woman of rank or wealth. A lady's companion usually took up the occupation in order to earn a living[120] and have somewhere to live.[121] The occupation of lady's companion became obsolete because upper-class women no longer primarily stayed in the home, and also because of the many other employment opportunities open to modern women. Cultur 18 20 Etching of two elegantly dressed ladies
Lamplighter Lamplighters toured public streets at dusk, lighting outdoor fixtures by means of a wick on a long pole. At dawn, the lamplighter would return to extinguish the lights using a small hook on the same pole.[122] Electric street lighting, which does not require lamplighters, replaced candles and oil and gas lamps. Additionally, gas lighting is more expensive than electric lighting.[123][124] Tech 16 20 Street scene depicting two lamplighters
Leech collector A leech collector procured medicinal leeches, which were in demand by medical practitioners for bloodletting. Leech collecting was an unpleasant and poorly paid occupation.[125][39]: 54–56  Leeches were promoted by François Broussais and other physicians. After Broussais died in 1838 the enthusiasm for leeches rapidly faded away, leading to a drop in the demand for leeches,[126]: 120 [127]: 10  and the employment of collectors. Cultur 18 20 Three women collecting leeches in a pond
Legger A legger used his legs to move a boat through a canal tunnel or adit without a towpath. The occupation was arduous and sometimes dangerous.[128][129][130] Originally canal boats were horse-drawn. After boats were fitted with motors there was no longer any requirement for legging through tunnels.[131] Tech 18 19 Demonstration of the process of legging through a tunnel
Limeburner Limeburners loaded, fired, cooled and unloaded a lime kiln in a one-week cycle. The work was physically strenuous and somewhat dangerous as the end-product (lime or CaO) is caustic. Lime was used as a building material.[39]: 62–63  Local small-scale kilns became increasingly unprofitable, and they gradually died out through the 19th century. They were replaced by larger industrial plants with more efficient kilns.[132] Tech -7 20 Limeburner constructing a lime kiln
Man-at-arms A man-at-arms was a soldier, well-versed in the use of arms, who served as a fully-armoured heavy cavalryman. The term man-at-arms denoted a military function, rather than a social rank.[134] By the 16th century men-at-arms carrying the lance were displaced by lightly armoured, or later unarmoured, soldiers employing firearms and a sword.[135] Tech 11 16 Mounted man in a suit of armour with a lance
Matchgirl A matchgirl was a street vendor of matches. As matches were an inexpensive product, with little profit margin, they were often sold by children.[f] In common with other child labour occupations, laws progressively banned work by children and redirected them into compulsory education.[136] Child 17 20 Young girl offering a box of matches for sale
Match maker A match maker (not to be confused with matchmaking) was a worker in match manufacturing. The occupation was badly paid and also unsafe because of exposure to white phosphorous leading to phosphorus necrosis of the jaw.[39]: 180–182 [137] Initially, matches and matchboxes[72]: 182  were produced locally on a small scale. The industry progressively became industrialized, and following a match workers' strike and greater automation, there was a decline in employment of match makers.[138] Tech 5 20 Women working in a match factory
Mudlark A mudlark was someone who scavenged the banks of rivers for items of value. The occupation was adopted by people, often children, in poverty and with a lack of skills. Work conditions were filthy and uncomfortable.[60]: 209–218 [139] Although in 1904 a person could still claim "mudlark" as an occupation, by then it seems to have been no longer viewed as an acceptable or lawful pursuit.[140] Mudlarking today is more of a hobby than an occupation. Legal 18 20 Man searching for objects of value in the water
Mule scavenger Scavengers were employed in cotton mills to clear the area underneath a spinning mule. The cotton wastage was seen as too valuable for the owners to leave, thus they employed young children to work under the machinery.[141]: 99 [39]: 164–167  The Sadler report exposed the poor working conditions in factories for children, including mule scavengers.[142] The occupation was recognised as dangerous for child workers and became obsolete. Child 18 20 Boy with a brush under a cotton spinning machine
Mute A mute, who could be a child or an adult, was a paid mourner at funerals. The mute would wear sombre clothing including a black cloak, a top hat with trailing hatbands, and gloves. Adult mutes had an unfortunate reputation for drunkenness.[143] Child mutes were present at some Victorian funerals, as described in Dickens's Oliver Twist and Martin Chuzzlewit, but have since fallen out of fashion.[144] Other types of professional mourners are still employed in some Asian countries. Cultur 17 20 Boy dressed as a funeral mute
Needle maker The needle maker took the product of the wire-drawer to manufacture metal needles in a multi-step process.[145]: 42–46 [146][147][148] Needle making was a toxic and risky occupation.[149][150] The demand for needles increased greatly in the 19th century. Increased production and lower unit costs were achieved in highly mechanised factories which replaced human needle makers.[149] Tech -2[g] 20 Engraving showing the eight steps in needle manufacturing
Ninja A ninja was an infiltration agent, mercenary, or guerrilla warfare fighter, and later bodyguard in feudal Japan. A ninja's activities included espionage, reconnaissance, ambush, and agitprop.[151]: 5, 9 [152] Following the Tokugawa shogunate in the 17th century, the ninja faded into practical obscurity.[153][151]: 55  Social 12 18 Ninja in black clothes climbing a rope
Oakum picker Oakum, a preparation of hemp or jute used to seal gaps, was recycled from old tarry ropes, which were unravelled and reduced to fibre.[154] This was a common occupation in prisons and workhouses, where inmates who could not do heavy labour were put to work picking oakum.[39]: 183–185 [155][h] The Poor Relief Act 1601 had provided for a "convenient stock of Flax, Hemp ... to set the poor on work". The activity became uneconomic as free workhouse labour was phased out and the cost of paid labour exceeded the value of the recycled material.[156] Social 16 19 Prisoners picking oakum
Phrenologist A phrenologist purported to measure bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. This was a rare occupation: for example, there were only 27 phrenologists in England and Wales listed in the 1861 UK census.[157] Phrenology has now been debunked as pseudoscience. The central phrenological notion that measuring the contour of the skull can predict personality traits has been discredited by empirical research.[5]: 266 [6][158] Debunk 18 20 A boy having his head examined by a phrenologist
Physiognomist A physiognomist purported to assess a person's character or personality from their facial appearance. Physiognomy as a practice meets the contemporary definition of pseudoscience[159][5]: 268  Physiognomy was not a scientific discipline and, like phrenology, it fell into disrepute in the 19th century.[160] Debunk -6 19 Three views of an eagle's head and a man's head in similar poses
Pin boy Pin boys were boys or young men hired at bowling alleys to manually reset pins and return balls to the player.[161] Replacing pin boys with automatic pinsetting machinery allowed bowling alleys to operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.[162] Tech 19 20 Boys setting up pins in a bowling alley
Pin maker The development of the pin closely paralleled that of the needle.[163][39]: 95–97  Pin makers used a multi-step process to make pins.[145]: 36–42  The efficiency gains from mechanisation of pin manufacturing put the majority of manual pin makers out of work by the end of the 19th century.[33]: 202 [163]: 21 [i] Tech -2 19 Six people in a pin workshop
Plague doctor A plague doctor was a physician who treated victims of bubonic plague during epidemics. They were hired by cities to treat infected patients, especially the poor.[164] As the occupation was unpleasant and dangerous, the physicians appointed as plague doctors tended to be inexperienced and second-rate.[165][166] As the plague receded the need for plague doctors fell. Envir 14 17 Engraving of a plague doctor wearing a beaked mask
Postilion A postilion was a person who guided a horse-drawn coach (or other wheeled vehicle such as a gun carriage) while mounted on a horse.[167] By contrast, a coachman controls the horses from the vehicle itself. As horse-drawn vehicles were replaced by motorized vehicles in the first half of the 20th century the need for postilions was eliminated. A few postilions are still used at occasions of ceremonial importance.[168] Tech 14 20 Painting of three postillions and six horses pulling an artillery piece
Poundmaster A poundmaster (or pinder)[72]: 216, 226  was a local government official responsible for the care of stray livestock. This was a common occupation in colonial America.[169] Since the need to deal with stray livestock today is now rare, the function has evolved into the modern dog-catcher or animal control officer. Stray pets are sent to animal shelters. Social 18 19 Man lassooing a stray dog to be put into the dog catcher's horse-drawn vehicle
Powder monkey A powder monkey manned naval guns as a member of a warship's crew, primarily during the Age of Sail. His chief role was to ferry gunpowder from the powder magazine in the ship's hold to the artillery pieces.[170][171][39]: 163–164  Developments in naval gunnery, and the phasing out of child labour during the 19th century, eliminated the position of powder boy.[96]: 106–123  Child 17 19 Team of six sailors firing a nautical gun
Priest hunter A priest hunter spied on or captured Catholic priests during Penal Times in the British Isles.[172] Priest hunters were effectively bounty hunters.[173][174] Catholic emancipation brought the persecution of Catholics to an end. The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 finally eliminated the bounty for catching priests. Legal 16 19 Plaque on a church wall commemorating Catholic martyrs
Printer's devil A printer's devil was a young apprentice in a printing establishment who performed a number of tasks, such as mixing tubs of ink for the pressman and fetching type for the compositor.[175] By 1894, with the decline of the apprenticeship system in the printing trade, the term printer's devil was becoming obsolete.[176] Social 17 19 refer to caption
Privateer A privateer was a private person (or vessel) who engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. In 1243, Henry III issued the first privateer commissions, which provided that the king would receive half the proceeds.[177] The 1856 Declaration of Paris outlawed privateering. During the American Civil War the Confederacy issued letters of marque to attack Union shipping or run the blockade.[178] Privateering was obsolete by 1899.[179] Legal 13 19 Privateers physically searching women for their valuables
Punkah wallah In India and other tropical colonial countries the punkahwallah was the servant who operated the punkah (fan), often using a pulley system.[180] The end of colonialism and the invention of the electric fan largely put punkah wallahs out of business in the 20th century.[181] Tech 17 20 Photograph of man working a punkah rope with his foot
Reeve A reeve was an official elected annually by the serfs to supervise lands for a feudal lord.[182][183]: 166–178  H. R. Loyn observed, "he [the reeve] is the earliest English specialist in estate management."[184] With the decline of the feudal system, and the subversion of its courts by the introduction of justices of the peace (magistrates), the use of reeves fell out of practice. Legal 7 15 Reeve on horseback
Resident minister A resident minister was a government official who took up permanent residence in another country.[185] While in theory they were diplomats, in practice some residents exercised a degree of indirect rule. With the end of colonialism in the 20th century, the resident minister system came to an end, and was replaced by country-to-country diplomatic relations. Legal 18 20 Two European resident ministers bowing to the emperor of Japan
Resin worker Resin workers' work involved the extraction or working of resin,[186] which was needed as a raw material in the manufacture of pitch, tar and turpentine. Resin worker was an occupation that largely died out in the 20th century, due to increasing labour costs, and competition from the petrochemical industry.[187] Econom 16 20 Man on a ladder stripping bark from a tree
Riding officer A riding officer patrolled the coast to suppress smuggling. The occupation was uncomfortable, poorly-paid, dangerous, and unpopular with the local people who often supported the smugglers.[39]: 134–137  Riding officers proved to be ineffective at suppressing smuggling. With the reduction in import taxes smuggling declined, and riding officers were phased out in the early 19th century. Legal 17 19 Smugglers burying a customs officer
Saltpetre worker A saltpetre worker produced potassium nitrate, an essential ingredient in gunpowder, by extraction from soil rich in dung and urine.[39]: 102–106 [188]: 18–25 [189] The arduous and expensive process of the saltpeter worker[190] was rendered uneconomic by cheaper imports from India.[188]: 133–135  Econom 13 18 Exterior view of a saltpetre works
Samurai Samurai were members of the warrior class who served as retainers to lords in Japan. Originally provincial warriors, they eventually came to play a major political role until their abolition during the Meiji era.[191] As the modern army emerged, the samurai were rendered increasingly obsolete and expensive to maintain. In 1877, the national army's victory over the rebellion by Saigō Takamori ended the era of the samurai.[192] Legal 10[193] 19 Illustration of a samurai climbing
Sawyer A sawyer sawed wood using a pitsaw, either in a saw pit, or with a log on trestles above ground.[45]: 60–61  The sawyer cut lumber to length for the building market (now done more efficiently in a sawmill),[194] and for the consumer market (now often done in a home improvement store). Tech 18 20 Engraving of sawyers at the two ends of a pit saw
Scribe A scribe was a person who served as a professional copyist, especially one who made copies of manuscripts before the invention of mechanical printing.[195][196] Scribes have generally been displaced by photocopiers and printers. An exception is the sofer, a Jewish religious scribe. Tech -3 20 Three scribes sitting cross-legged
Scrivener A scrivener (or scribe) wrote (or copied) letters and formal documents. They also carried out secretarial and administrative duties such as dictation and keeping records.[197] With the advent of compulsory education, the general population learned to read and write and the need for scriveners faded away. Scriveners later developed into notaries[198] and court reporters. Social -3 20 Drawing of male scrivener with female client
Scullery maid The scullery maid was the lowest in the hierarchy of female servants. She was assigned tasks by the cook and the kitchen maid.[38]: 39  Scullery maids worked long hours and were poorly paid. Other more favourable employment opportunities caused them to leave the occupation.[7]: 188  Econom 14 20 Painting of scullery maid with kitchen pans
Sedan chair bearer Chair bearers, or chairmen, were a form of human-powered transport using a litter such as a sedan chair[39]: 108–111  or a palanquin.[199] Improvements in paving, street lighting, and public transportation led to a progressive decline in the use of sedan chairs in the 19th century.[200]: 205  Social -8[200]: 213  19 Client inside a sedan chair carried by two bearers
Seneschal The most common meaning of seneschal was a steward in a royal or noble household during the Middle Ages and early Modern period.[201][183]: 157  The office of seneschal declined in importance over the 16th and 17th centuries, but was not eliminated until the French Revolution.[202] Legal 12 18 Side view portrait of a French seneschal
Slave catcher A slave catcher (or slave hunter) was a person employed to track down and return escaped slaves to their enslavers in the USA,[203] Brazil[204]: 119  or in the Caribbean.[205] Slave catching in the United States ceased with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865.[206] Slavery was abolished in British colonies in 1838, in French colonies in 1848, and in Brazil in 1888.[204]: 1  Legal 16 19 Mounted slave catcher with captured slave on foot
Soda jerk A soda jerk[207]: 83  was an American term for a person—typically a young man—who would operate the soda fountain in a drugstore, preparing and serving soda drinks and ice cream sodas.[207]: 101–103  Soda jerks were relatively common in the United States from the 1920s until the late 1950s; due to economic and social trends, the occupation essentially no longer exists.[207]: 143–153 [208] Social 20 20 Soda jerk offering an ice cream soda in a glass
Still room maid The still room maid was a middle-ranking female servant who worked in the still room making foodstuffs, candles, and home remedies.[209] She also prepared and served afternoon tea.[38]: 42  Still room maids were only employed in houses with large staffs. As specialists, they were amongst the first to go as employers downsized to the essentials of butler, housekeeper and cook. Econom 14 20 Maid serving tea to a seated woman
Stocking weaver A stocking weaver made stockings using silk, wool, linen or cotton and was paid on the basis of piece work. Stocking weaving machines started to be used in the 16th century.[72]: 272  Stockings made inexpensively in factories from artificial fabrics (rayon in the 1920s, then nylon in the 1940s) have eliminated the occupation of stocking weaver.[45]: 68 [210] Tech 16 20 Engraving of a stocking weaver sitting at a loom
Sutler A sutler was a merchant who provisioned an army in the field or camp.[211]: 1  A vivandière had a similar function;[212] both were types of camp followers. Sutlers were not popular figures being profit-oriented rather than heroic.[213] The occupation of sutler to the US army came to an end in 1893.[211]: 197 [214] Econom -5[211]: 1  20 Photograph of a sutler's tent with clients
Switchboard operator A switchboard operator connected calls by inserting a pair of phone plugs into the appropriate jacks on a manual telephone switchboard.[215] Switchboard operators were gradually phased out and replaced by automated systems, first those allowing direct dialing within a local area, then those for long-distance and international direct dialing.[216][217] Tech 19 20 Photograph of operators at a large telephone switchboard
Tallow chandler A tallow chandler made and sold tallow candles, which were a less expensive, but lower quality, alternative to wax candles. Tallow candles were replaced first by wax candles and then by gas and electric lighting.[45]: 74 [218][219] Econom 13 20 Engraving of a tallow chandler making candles
Telegraph operator A telegraph operator used telegraphy to send and receive messages over long distances. A variety of methods have been employed, such as optical, electrical, wireless (or radio), and reflected sunlight. Competition from the telephone, which had a speed advantage, drove the telegraph into decline from 1920 onwards.[220] The few remaining telegraph applications were largely taken over by alternatives on the internet towards the end of the 20th century.[221][222] Tech 18 20 Telegraph operating using a morse key
Thief-taker A thief-taker was hired by a crime victim to bring criminals to justice.[223]: 55–59  Thief-takers, such as Jonathan Wild,[224] had a corrupt reputation[225]: 46  sometimes colluding with the criminals they were meant to catch.[223]: 40  Thief-takers usually worked in pairs or groups[226] as it was a risky occupation.[223]: 260,468  Thief-takers existed until the mid-19th century when they were replaced by professional police forces.[225]: 122  Legal 17 19 refer to caption
Tondenhei Tondenhei were military settler colonists recruited to develop and defend Japan's northern frontier in Hokkaidō and Karafuto against foreign states, particularly Imperial Russia.[227][228] After the Kaitakushi was abolished in 1882, the Imperial Japanese Army assumed control of the units. In 1903 they incorporated them into the 7th "Bear" Division.[229] Social 19 20 Tondenhei farmers working in the fields
Tosher A tosher, or sewer-hunter, scavenged in the sewers especially in London during the Victorian era.[39]: 190–191 [60]: 250  The occupation was dangerous, unpleasant, illegal and unpopular. Modernisation of the sewerage system helped to eliminate the occupation. Tech 19 20 Man in a sewer tunnel panning for valuable objects
Town crier A town crier was an officer of a royal court or public authority who made public announcements in the streets.[230][231] Newspapers, radio, television, and the internet, have displaced town criers from their function. The role is now ceremonial. Tech 11 20 Town crier with hand bell and paper announcement
Water carrier The occupation of water carrier existed before the advent of centralized water supply systems.[232] A water carrier collected water from a source and transported it to people's homes.[233]: 75–76 [234] The poor carried water themselves; those who could afford it paid the water carrier.[235] After the construction of pipe networks, the profession of water carrier became obsolete.[233]: 125  Econom 16 20 Photograph of a male water carrier in a turban
Wheelwright A wheelwright was an artisan who built or repaired spoked wooden wheels.[46]: 112–120  Wheelwrights established associations to control the trade, for example the Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights.[236] In the United Kingdom census there were over 26,000 wheelwrights in 1841,[237] and over 30,000 in 1871.[238] By the early 20th century, wheelwright employment had faded away due to a lack of demand for wooden wheels.[239] Tech -20[j] 20 Engraving of a wheelwright hammering a wooden wheel
Wire-drawer A wire-drawer produced metal wires used in further manufacturing processes (such as needle making. The wire-drawer reduced the cross-section of a wire by pulling it through one or more dies.[145]: 47–53  Increasing demand for wire and the development of rolling mills using greater force and higher temperatures made the production of wire by individual wire-drawers uneconomic.[240][241] Tech 9[242] 20 Engraving of a wire-drawer in his workshop
Woad dyer A woad dyer extracted woad from the Isatis tinctoria plant and used it to dye textiles blue. The occupation required skill and experience but was unpopular due to the stench.[39]: 97–99  Imported indigo from India, which was produced more cheaply and had better tinting strength,[243] gradually forced the woad dyers out of business.[244][245] Econom -1[246] 19 Circular horse-drawn milling machine for woad
Wool comber A wool comber cleaned and prepared wool into a state ready to be spun into worsted. The wool comber used heated metal combs to comb the wool.[50]: 200  The invention of the wool combing machine in the late 18th century and its progressive use in factories rendered manual wool combing inefficient.[45]: 90 [247] Tech -99 19 Engraving of a wool comber in his workshop

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Obsolete occupations.

Notes

  1. ^ For example, the Anatomy Act 1832 in the United Kingdom.
  2. ^ In the United Kingdom the following laws progressively restricted the employment of climbing boys: Chimney Sweepers Act 1788, Chimney Sweepers Act 1834, Chimney Sweepers and Chimneys Regulation Act 1840, Chimney Sweepers Regulation Act 1864 and Chimney Sweepers Act 1875
  3. ^ In early medieval Europe (5th to 10th century), the Byzantine Empire made use of military drums to indicate marching and rowing cadence. Pryor, John H.; Jeffries, Elizabeth M. (2006). The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204. Brill. ISBN 978-9-04740-993-9.
  4. ^ Book of Isaiah 7:3 King James Version: "Then said the LORD unto Isaiah, Go forth now to meet Ahaz, thou, and Shearjashub thy son, at the end of the conduit of the upper pool in the highway of the fuller's field." Wischnitzer, Mark (1965). A history of Jewish crafts and guilds. New York: Jonathan David. p. 11.
  5. ^ Gong farmer is included under the name "Nightman" in the occupational categories "Dust Collector", "Scavenger" in the UK censuses for 1841, 1851 and 1861. The occupation of scavenger is still current in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
  6. ^ The occupation was drawn to the world's attention by the story The Little Match Girl written by Hans Christian Andersen, first published in 1845.
  7. ^ Refers to needles made from metal wire. See Ancient sewing needles
  8. ^ Although most oakum was picked in institutions, it was also done as a task onboard ships, and there was an oakum picking cottage industry. Wilson, Ivy G. (June 2011). "The Spectacle of Disorder: Race, Decoration, and the Social Logic of Space". Specters of Democracy: Blackness and the Aesthetics of Politics in the Antebellum (Online ed.). pp. 126–144. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195337372.003.0007. Retrieved 2024-10-18.
  9. ^ Pin manufacturing in England and Wales showed a progressive decrease in employment from 1841-1871 according to the decennial census figures. However, the figures should be treated with caution as occupations were self-declared, and changing demand could affect the figures irrespective of developments in manufacturing processes.
    Pin Manufacture Workers, England and Wales, 1841-1871
    1841: 1330 "1841 Census of Great Britain, Occupations". Retrieved 2024-10-12.
    1851: 1295 "Census of 1851 – Occupations". Retrieved 2014-10-12.
    1861: 729 "Census of 1861 – Occupations – England and Wales". Retrieved 2024-10-12.
    1871: 687 Census Office, Great Britain (1970) [1873]. 1871 census, England and Wales; ages, civil condition, occupations and birthplaces. Irish U.P. pp. xl, xlv. ISBN 978-0-71651-195-3. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  10. ^ Refers to wheels with spokes rather than earlier solid wooden wheels

References

  1. ^ "Census Reports for Great Britain 1801–1971". University of Portsmouth, Vision of Britain. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  2. ^ "Comparative Occupation Statistics 1870–1930" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1930. Retrieved 2024-09-25.
  3. ^ a b Tortora, Phyllis G.; Marcketti, Sara B. (2015). Survey of Historic Costume (6th ed.). Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-62892-167-0.
  4. ^ a b Phillips, George Lewis (1949). England's climbing boys; a history of the long struggle to abolish child labor chimney-sweeping. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  5. ^ a b c Williams, William F., ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. New York: Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-3351-X.
  6. ^ a b Hines, Terence (2002). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: a critical examination of the evidence. New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-87975-419-8. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Horn, Pamela (1995). The rise and fall of the Victorian servant. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 978-0-71959-730-5. Retrieved 2024-09-28.
  8. ^ a b Lemieux, A. M.; Clarke, R. V. (2009). "The International Ban on Ivory Sales and its Effects on Elephant Poaching in Africa". British Journal of Criminology. 49 (4): 451. doi:10.1093/bjc/azp030.
  9. ^ a b Richardson, Ruth (1989). Death, dissection, and the destitute. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-14022-862-5. Retrieved 2024-09-04.
  10. ^ Longmate, Norman (1974). The Workhouse. London: Temple Smith. ISBN 978-0-71260-637-0. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  11. ^ Autor, David H. (2015-08-01). "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 29 (3): 3–30. doi:10.1257/jep.29.3.3. hdl:1721.1/109476.
  12. ^ Bix, Amy Sue (2000). Inventing Ourselves Out of Jobs? Americas Debate over Technological Unemployment, 1929–1981. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6244-2. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  13. ^ Thompson, E.P. (1963). The Making of the English Working Class. London: Gollancz. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  14. ^ Howard, John (2019-11-01). "Artificial intelligence: Implications for the future of work". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 62 (11): 917–926. doi:10.1002/ajim.23037. ISSN 0271-3586. PMID 31436850. S2CID 201275028.
  15. ^ "Impact of AI on Jobs: Jobocalypse on the Horizon?". 14 July 2023. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  16. ^ Pereira, Michela (1998). "Alchemy". In Craig, Edward (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 155–159. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-Q001-1. ISBN 0-4151-8706-0.
  17. ^ Principe, Lawrence M.; Newman, William R. (2001). "Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy". In Newman, William R.; Grafton, Anthony (eds.). Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. MIT Press. pp. 385–432. ISBN 978-0-26214-075-1. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  18. ^ Principe, Lawrence M. (2013). The secrets of alchemy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-22668-295-2. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  19. ^ Boulton, Chris (5 August 2013). "Ale-wife". Encyclopedia of Brewing. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-40516-744-4.
  20. ^ a b Bennett, Judith M. (1996). Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300–1600. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  21. ^ "alewife". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  22. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alnage". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 719.
  23. ^ Ford, Felicity (26 November 2014). "Wovember Words: Alnagers". Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  24. ^ Burgess, E. Martin (April 1953). "The mail-maker's technique". The Antiquaries Journal. 33 (1–2): 48–55. doi:10.1017/s0003581500058856.
  25. ^ Stone, George Cameron (1934). A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms And Armor in All Countries and in All Times. The Southworth Press. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  26. ^ Peterson, Harold L. (1968). A History of Body Armor. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. p. 43. Retrieved 2024-09-30. Good armor was custom-made with detailed measurements taken from the man for whom it was intended.
  27. ^ Ffoulkes, Charles John (1988) [1912]. The armourer and his craft from the XIth to the XVIth century. Mineola, NY: Dover. p. 18. ISBN 0-4862-5851-3. Retrieved 2024-09-30. The material was so costly in the making that it was made and remade over and over again
  28. ^ Arnold, Thomas F.; Keegan, John (2001). The Renaissance at war. London: Cassell. pp. 75–78. ISBN 0-3043-5270-5. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  29. ^ Curl, Michael (2012). "The Industry of Defence: A Look at the Armour Industry of the Fourteenth, Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century". Medieval Warfare. 2 (1): 38–42. JSTOR 48578631.
  30. ^ Risse, L. Mark; Gaskin, Julia W. (2 September 2016). Best Management Practices for Wood Ash as Agricultural Soil Amendment (Technical report). University of Georgia Extension. Bulletin 1142. Retrieved 2024-10-09. Wood was burned in the United States in the 1700s through the early 1900s to produce ash for chemical extraction. The ash was used mainly to produce potash for fertilizer and alkali for industry. As other potash production technologies became more economical, the value of wood ash as a raw material dropped.
  31. ^ Hennings, Juli; Lynch, Harry (27 July 2022). Powerful Pot Ash. EarthDate (Technical report). Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin. Episode 274. Retrieved 2024-10-09. The earliest record of the use of potash comes from the Sumerian civilization around 4,500 years ago
  32. ^ a b Stuart-Bennett, Joshua G. (2023). Motherhood, Respectability and Baby-Farming in Victorian and Edwardian London. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003161806. ISBN 978-0-36775-275-0.
  33. ^ a b Ward, Margaret (2008). Female occupations: women's employment 1850–1950. Countryside Books. ISBN 978-1-84674-097-8. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  34. ^ Broder, S. (1988). "Child care or child neglect?: Baby farming in late-nineteenth-century Philadelphia". Gender & Society. 2 (2): 128–148. doi:10.1177/089124388002002002.
  35. ^ "Report on the Baby Farming System and its Evils. I. History" (PDF). British Medical Journal. 1 (1834): 489–491. 22 February 1896. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1834.489. PMC 2406327. PMID 20756062. Retrieved 2024-10-13.
  36. ^ "Report on the Baby Farming System and its Evils. II. The working of the Infant Life Protection Act in London" (PDF). British Medical Journal. 1 (1835): 543–544. 29 February 1896. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1835.543. PMC 2406376. PMID 20756073. Retrieved 2024-10-13.
  37. ^ Arnot, Margaret L. (August 1994). "Infant death, child care and the state: the babyfarming scandal and the first infant life protection legislation of 1872". Continuity and Change. 9 (2): 271–311. doi:10.1017/S0268416000002290.
  38. ^ a b c d e Evans, Sîan (2011). Life below stairs: in the Victorian & Edwardian country house. London: National Trust. Retrieved 2024-09-28.
  39. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Robinson, Tony; Willcock, David (2004). The Worst Jobs in History. London: Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-33043-857-5.
  40. ^ Levinson, David. "body-snatching". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2024-10-06.
  41. ^ Derickson, Alan (1998). Black Lung: Anatomy of a Public Health Disaster. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. pp. 26–29. ISBN 0-8014-3186-7.
  42. ^ a b c Hindman, Hugh D. (2002). Child Labor: An American History. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0936-3.
  43. ^ a b Freedman, Russell (1998). Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labor. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-3957-9726-8. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  44. ^ Clement, Priscilla Ferguson (2001). "Jobs in the Nineteenth Century". In Clement, Priscilla Ferguson; Reinier, Jacqueline S. (eds.). Boyhood in America: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1: A-K. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 390–391. ISBN 1-5760-7215-0.
  45. ^ a b c d e Drury, Elizabeth, ed. (2006) [1818]. A book of English trades: being a library of the useful arts. Swindon: English Heritage. ISBN 978-1-85074-978-3. Retrieved 2024-09-08.
  46. ^ a b c The book of trades or library of the useful arts part II. London. 1811. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  47. ^ "History: Early American Brooms". BroomShop.com. Retrieved 2024-10-13.
  48. ^ a b "The evolution of brush manufacturing". Valley Brush Corporation. Retrieved 2024-10-13.
  49. ^ Panati, Charles (1987). Extraordinary origins of everyday things. Harper & Row. p. 142. ISBN 0-0605-5098-8. Retrieved 2024-10-26. Then the buzz of the vacuum cleaner sounded the knell of the broom and all such whisking devices.
  50. ^ a b Campbell, R. (1969) [1747]. The London Tradesman. New York: Augustus M. Kelley. ISBN 0-6780-5546-7. Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  51. ^ Rowlands, Marie B. (1975). Masters and men in the West Midland metalware trades before the industrial revolution. Manchester University Press. pp. 32, 34. ISBN 0-7190-0582-5. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  52. ^ a b Vinogradov [Виноградовв], Daniil V. [Д. В.] (30 November 2018). "История бурлачества в России" [The history of Russian barge-hauling] (PDF). Korea Open Access Journals (in Russian). 28 (2): 197–226. doi:10.22414/rusins.2018.28.2.197. Retrieved 2024-10-14.
  53. ^ Guzeva, Alexandra (21 October 2017). "The barge haulers: Why did Russians drag ships upstream?". Russia Beyond. Retrieved 2024-10-14.
  54. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cavalry". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 563.
  55. ^ Newark, Peter (1987). Sabre & lance: an illustrated history of cavalry. Poole: Blandford Press. ISBN 978-0-71371-813-3. Retrieved 2024-09-22. The end of the first world conflict sounded the final trumpet call for the British cavalry in war. The advent of the tank and fast motor vehicles made mechanisation inevitable and by the outbreak of World War 2 most of the cavalry regiments of the major powers were mounted on the war horse of the 20th century: the armoured car and the battle tank.
  56. ^ Frye, Carrie (27 July 2016). "The Cat's Meat Man, From Dickens To Jack The Ripper". Longreads. Retrieved 2024-10-13.
  57. ^ Hartwell, Sarah. "The Cat's Meat Man". Messybeast. Retrieved 2024-10-13.
  58. ^ Collinson, Alwyn (31 July 2017). "Cats in the London collection: a feline history". London Museum. Retrieved 2024-10-13.
  59. ^ Stables, Gordon (1876). The domestic cat. London: George Routledge & Sons. p. 61. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  60. ^ a b c d Mayhew, Henry (1985) [1861]. Neuberg, Victor (ed.). London labour and the London poor. Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14043-241-1.
  61. ^ Brain, Jessica (7 April 2021). "Chimney Sweeps and Climbing Boys". Historic UK. Retrieved 2024-10-14.
  62. ^ Strange, K.H. (1982). Climbing Boys: A Study of Sweeps' Apprentices 1772–1875. London/Busby: Allison & Busby. ISBN 0-8503-1431-3.
  63. ^ "History". The Worshipful Company of Coachmakers. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  64. ^ a b Beeton, Isabella (1968) [1861]. The book of household management. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-2246-1473-8. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  65. ^ Nockolds, Harold, ed. (1977). The Coachmakers: A History of the Worshipful Company of Coachmakers and Coach Harness Makers 1677–1997. London: J.A. Allen. ISBN 0-8513-1270-5. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  66. ^ Boyer, Paul S. (2008). "From Tracts to Mass-Market Paperbacks". In Cohen, Charles L.; Boyer, Paul S. (eds.). Religion and the Culture of Print in Modern America. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-2992-2570-4.
  67. ^ Friedman, Walter A. (2004). "Book Peddlers and Evangelicals". Birth of a Salesman: The Transformation of Selling in America. Harvard University Press. pp. 22–26. ISBN 0-6740-1833-8. Evangelical preachers pioneered many techniques that salespeople would later adopt.
  68. ^ a b Grier, David Alan (2005). When Computers Were Human. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-69113-382-9.
  69. ^ Light, Jennifer S. (1999). "When Computers Were Women". Technology and Culture. 40 (3): 455–483. doi:10.1353/tech.1999.0128. JSTOR 25147356. S2CID 108407884.
  70. ^ Ministry of Labour (1927). "477.—Coopers, Hoop Makers and Benders". A Dictionary of Occupational Terms Based on the Classification of Occupations used in the Census of Population, 1921. HMSO. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
  71. ^ a b Kilby, Kenneth (1971). The cooper and his trade. London: John Baker. ISBN 0-2129-8399-7. Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  72. ^ a b c d e f Waters, Colin (1999). A dictionary of old trades, titles and occupations. Countryside Books. ISBN 978-1-85306-794-5. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  73. ^ "Corks and Cork Cutting". Scientific American. 26 (25): 397. 15 June 1872. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican06151872-397. The use of machinery for this industry, introduced in this country in 1853, has proved a great saving of hand labor.
  74. ^ "Old occupation names". Rodney Hall. 16 September 2018. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  75. ^ Rowe, Richard (1881). ""Parson," The Crossing-Sweeper". Life in the London Streets. p. 148. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
  76. ^ Zonderman, David A. (1992). Aspirations and Anxieties: New England Workers and the Mechanized Factory System, 1815–1850. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505747-8. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  77. ^ Hindman, Hugh D. (2015). "Child Labor in American textiles". In Hindman, Hugh D. (ed.). The World of Child Labor: An Historical and Regional Survey. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-76561-707-1.
  78. ^ Fourné, Franz (1999). Synthetic Fibers: Machines and Equipment, Manufacture, Properties: Handbook for Plant Engineering, Machine Design, and Operation. Translated by Hergeth, Helmut H.A.; Mears, Ron. Hanser. ISBN 1-5699-0250-X.
  79. ^ Peacock, Edward (30 October 1897). "Dog-Whipper". Notes and Queries. s8-XII (305): 342–343. doi:10.1093/nq/s8-xii.305.342. ISSN 0029-3970. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
  80. ^ Self-Weeks, Wm. (4 January 1930). "Dog-Whipper". Notes and Queries. 158 (1): 10–12. doi:10.1093/nq/158.1.10h. ISSN 0029-3970. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
  81. ^ Norris, John (2012). Marching to the Drums: A History of Military Drums and Drummers. Stround: Spellmount. ISBN 978-0-75246-879-2.
  82. ^ Jung, Peter (20 May 2003). The Austro-Hungarian Forces in World War I. Bloomsbury USA. p. 44. ISBN 1-8417-6594-5.
  83. ^ "Drysalter". Yorkshire Historical Dictionary, University of York. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
  84. ^ John, A.H. (1965). "Miles Nightingale-Drysalter: A Study in Eighteenth-Century Trade". The Economic History Review. New Series. 18 (1): 152–163. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1965.tb01666.x. ISSN 0013-0117. JSTOR 2591879.
  85. ^ e. b. (11 May 1867). "Drysalter". Notes and Queries. s3-XI (280): 381. doi:10.1093/nq/s3-XI.280.381a. ISSN 0029-3970. Many a drysalter is a man, of substance, and sometimes he is a millionnaire, his wealth being acquired from dealing in saline substances, drugs, dry-stuffs, and even pickles and sauces.
  86. ^ Roser, Christoph (2017). "Faster, Better, Cheaper" in the History of Manufacturing: From the Stone Age to Lean Manufacturing and Beyond. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-49875-630-3.
  87. ^ "Liftboy - Does the elevator operator still exist?". Schindler. 2018-02-26. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  88. ^ Andreas, Bernard (2014). Lifted: a cultural history of the elevator. Translated by Dollenmayer, David. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-81478-716-8.
  89. ^ Spoel, Philippa M. (2001). "Rereading the Elocutionists: The Rhetoric of Thomas Sheridan's A Course of Lectures on Elocution and John Walker's Elements of Elocution". Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric. 19 (1): 49–91. doi:10.1525/rh.2001.19.1.49.
  90. ^ Wallace, Karl Richards, ed. (1954). History of speech education in America; background studies. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
  91. ^ "The escheator: a short introduction". Mapping the Medieval Countryside: Properties, Places & People. University of Winchester and King's College London. Retrieved 2024-10-02.
  92. ^ Jervis, Ben; Briggs, Chris; Forward, Alice; Gromelski, Tomasz; Tompkins, Matthew (2023). The Material Culture of English Rural Households c. 1250–1600. Cardiff University Press. ISBN 978-1-91165-344-8. Retrieved 2024-10-02.
  93. ^ Carpenter, Christine. "General introduction". Mapping the Medieval Countryside: Properties, Places & People. University of Winchester and King's College London. Retrieved 2024-10-02. Given their major role in the crown's handling of the lands of its most important subjects, it is hardly surprising that escheators, like other royal officials in the localities, should have come in for serious criticism and accusations of corruption.
  94. ^ a b Leonard, Devin (2016). Neither snow nor rain: a history of the United States Postal Service. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-80212-458-6. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  95. ^ Stimson, Alexander Lovett (1858). History of the express companies: and the origin of American railroads (second ed.). Retrieved 2024-10-02.
  96. ^ a b c Bishop, Eleanor C. (1982). Ponies, patriots, and powder monkeys : a history of children in America's armed forces, 1776–1916. Del Mar, CA: Bishop Press. ISBN 0-9113-2900-5. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  97. ^ Howe, Warren P. (1999). "Early American Military Music". American Music. 17 (1): 87–116. doi:10.2307/3052375. ISSN 0734-4392. JSTOR 3052375.
  98. ^ Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 87. ISBN 0-6848-0164-7. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  99. ^ Orwell, George (17 March 1944). "As I Please". Tribune. Retrieved 2024-09-22. Except at public functions, the last time I saw a footman in livery was in 1921.
  100. ^ a b Scott, E. Kilburn (1931). "Early Cloth Fulling and its Machinery". Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 12 (1): 31–52. doi:10.1179/tns.1931.004.
  101. ^ Carus-Wilson, E. M. (1941). "An Industrial Revolution of the Thirteenth Century". The Economic History Review. 11 (1): 39–60. doi:10.2307/2590709. JSTOR 2590709.
  102. ^ Campbell, Gordon (2013). The Hermit in the Garden: From Imperial Rome to Ornamental Gnome. Oxford University Press. pp. 3, 23, 62–69, 97, 124. ISBN 978-0-19969-699-4.
  103. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gladiators". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 63.
  104. ^ Augustine of Hippo. "Confessions, Book 6, Chapter 8" (PDF). Retrieved 2024-10-02.
  105. ^ Roberts, Daniel G.; Barrett, David (January 1984). "Nightsoil Disposal Practices of the 19th Century and the Origin of Artifacts in Plowzone Proveniences". Historical Archaeology. 18 (1): 108–115. doi:10.1007/bf03374043. PMID 11635027.
  106. ^ Cockayne, Emily (2007). Hubbub: filth, noise and stench in England, 1600-1770. Yale University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-30011-214-6. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  107. ^ "The Hallboy: Daily Duties". Channel4. 2003. Retrieved 2024-09-28.
  108. ^ Musson, Jeremy (2009). Up and down stairs - the history of the country house servant. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-71959-730-5. Retrieved 2024-09-28.
  109. ^ a b c d Jones, Joseph C. (1984). America's icemen: an illustrative history of the United States natural ice industry, 1665-1925. Humble, TX: Jobeco Books. ISBN 0-9607-5721-X.
  110. ^ a b Anderson, Oscar Edward (1953). Refrigeration in America; a history of a new technology and its impact. Princeton: Published for the University of Cincinnati by Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-80461-621-8. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  111. ^ de Hamel, Christopher (2001). The British Library guide to manuscript illumination: history and techniques. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-80208-173-5. Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  112. ^ de Hamel, Christopher (1992). Scribes and illuminators (Medieval craftsmen). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-80207-707-3. Retrieved 2024-10-26.
  113. ^ a b Bland, David (1969). A history of book illustration: the illuminated manuscript and the printed book (second revised ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52001-379-7. Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  114. ^ de Hamel, Christopher (2001). A history of illuminated manuscripts (2nd ed.). Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-71483-452-8. The printers could produce books more accurately and more cheaply for about one fifth to one tenth of the price of a manuscript. In the event, accuracy and price were more important than script and illumination, and we have been printing books ever since.
  115. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ivory". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 92.
  116. ^ Rankin, Joy Lisi (2018). A People's History of Computing in the United States. Harvard University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-67498-851-4.
  117. ^ Fierheller, George A. (2014-02-07). Do not Fold, Spindle or Mutilate: The "hole" story of punched cards (PDF). Markham, Ontario, Canada: Stewart Publishing & Printing. ISBN 978-1-89418-386-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-07-09. Retrieved 2018-04-03.
  118. ^ Peek, Sitala (27 March 2016). "Knocker uppers: Waking up the workers in industrial Britain". BBC News. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  119. ^ Akanksha, Singh (September 5, 2023). "Who and What Was a Knocker-Upper?". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  120. ^ Gissing, George (1998). The Odd Women. Broadview Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-55111-111-7. For the unfortunate minority who did not marry and who had no male relative to support them, there was always recourse to the acceptably genteel and domestic positions of governess or lady's companion.
  121. ^ White, Bianca (5 May 2023). "Do You Want To Be A Lady's Companion?". Retrieved 2024-09-26.
  122. ^ Walker, Beverley (July 1970). "The Old Lamplighter: Lighting the Streets as an Occupation". Archives of Environmental Health. 21 (1): 105–108. doi:10.1080/00039896.1970.10667201.
  123. ^ Schivelbusch, Wolfgang (1987). "The Policing of Street Lighting". Yale French Studies (73): 61–74. doi:10.2307/2930197. JSTOR 2930197.
  124. ^ Cambre, Aren (30 October 2005). "Gas Lamps are Expensive". Retrieved 2024-09-08.
  125. ^ "Leech collectors". Science Museum. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2024-10-02. In early modern Europe, leeches were in high demand for their medicinal uses in bloodletting, a demand which only increased during a 'leech craze' in the first half of the 1800s. To meet this demand there was a whole profession devoted to the collection of leeches. Collectors, mostly women, waded into ponds populated by leeches, and attracted the worms with their bare legs. Some used animals instead, for example horses that were too old for hard physical labour. While this work was not physically demanding, leech collectors suffered from the loss of blood and frequently from infections they caught from the leeches.
  126. ^ Duke, Martin (1991). The Development of Medical Techniques and Treatments: From Leeches to Heart Surgery. International Universities Press. ISBN 0-8236-1232-5. Retrieved 2024-10-02.
  127. ^ Michalsen, Andreas; Roth, Manfred; Dobos, Gustav, eds. (2007). Medicinal Leech Therapy. Stuttgart: Thieme. ISBN 978-3-13161-891-7.
  128. ^ Rolt, L.T.C. (1985) [1969]. Navigable waterways. Penguin. pp. 89, 190–1. ISBN 978-0-14007-622-6. Retrieved 2024-10-06.
  129. ^ Faulkner, Alan H. (1993). The Grand Junction Canal. Rickmansworth: W.H. Walker. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-95179-231-5. Retrieved 2024-10-06.
  130. ^ Eadie, Fiona (2018). "Jack the Legger, 1802 Moving Barges through the Sapperton Tunnel". Tales from the towpath - stories and histories of the Cotswold canals. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-75099-016-5.
  131. ^ McKnight, Hugh (1979). The Shell book of inland waterways. Book Club Associates. p. 327. Retrieved 2024-10-06. As there is no towpath, boats were legged through the 1,640yd bore [of the Foulridge Tunnel on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal] until a steam tug was provided in 1880. Two years later, after a fatal accident to a legger, use of the tug became compulsory.
  132. ^ Carran, D.; Hughes, J.; Leslie, A.; Kennedy, C. (2012). "A Short History of the Use of Lime as a Building Material Beyond Europe and North America". International Journal of Architectural Heritage. 6 (2): 117–146. doi:10.1080/15583058.2010.511694. S2CID 111165006.
  133. ^ "Old links with London's link boys". New York Times. March 8, 1964. p. 18. Retrieved 2024-09-17.
  134. ^ Nicholson, Helen (2004). Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe 300–1500. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 55. ISBN 0-3337-6330-0.
  135. ^ Keen, Maurice Hugh, ed. (1999). Medieval warfare: a history. Oxford University Press. p. 202. ISBN 0-1982-0639-9. Retrieved 2024-10-09. The defeat of heavy cavalry by armies fighting on foot was one of the most striking features of warfare during the early to mid-fourteenth century; indeed, some historians have identified an 'infantry revolution' in these events.
  136. ^ Anderson, Elisabeth (2013). "Ideas in action: the politics of Prussian child labor reform,1817–1839" (PDF). Theory and Society. 42: 81–119. doi:10.1007/s11186-012-9186-4. Retrieved 2024-10-04.
  137. ^ Dixon, William Hepworth (1925). The match industry: its origin and development. Retrieved 2024-10-04.
  138. ^
    • Crass Jr., M.F. (1941). "A History of the Match Industry". Journal of Chemical Education
    • "Part I - Chemical fire making prior to the invention of the friction match". 18 (3): 116–120. doi:10.1021/ed018p116
    • "Part III - Phosphorus matches". 18 (6): 277–282. doi:10.1021/ed018p277
    • "Part V - Safety or strike-on-box matches". 18 (7): 316–319. doi:10.1021/ed018p316
    • "Part VIII - Early manufacturing procedure". 18 (8): 380–384. doi:10.1021/ed018p380
    • "Part IX - Phosphorous necrosis". 18 (9): 428–431. doi:10.1021/ed018p428
  139. ^ "Explore the History: Find Out About the Rich History of Mudlarking". Thames Festival Trust. Retrieved 2024-10-04.
  140. ^ "The Police Courts". The Times. No. 37339. 11 March 1904. p. 11, col F. A 21-year-old man, Robert Harold, "describing himself as a mudlark", was convicted and sentenced to one month in prison for unlawful possession of a length of chain he had dug out from the Thames foreshore, despite the police being unable to cite any owner for the chain.
  141. ^ Clarke, Allen (1985) [1899]. The effects of the factory system. Kelsall. ISBN 0-9465-7105-8. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  142. ^ Sadler, Matthew (8 August 1832). Report from the Committee on the "Bill to regulate the labour of children in the mills and factories of the United Kingdom": with the minutes of evidence, appendix and index (Report). London: Great Britain. Parliament. House of commons. p. 470. Retrieved 2024-10-05. 9961. Will you explain the nature of the work that a scavenger has to do? - The scavenger has to take the brush and sweep under the wheels, and to be under the direction of the spinners and piecers generally. 9962. Is it an employment that requires constant activity and vigilance? - It is. 9963. Does it expose to more than ordinary danger the child that is so engaged? - Particularly so.
  143. ^ "The history of funeral mutes". Austin's Funeral Directors. 18 January 2016. Retrieved 2024-10-20.
  144. ^ Puckle, Bertram S. (1926). Funeral Customs: Their Origin and Development. London: T. W. Laurie, Ltd. pp. 65–67. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  145. ^ a b c The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part III. 1807. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  146. ^ "The needle maker". Book of Old-Time Trades and Tools. Dover. 2005 [1866]. pp. 168–174. ISBN 0-4864-4342-6.
  147. ^ White, George (1940). "A History of Early Needle-making". Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 21 (1): 81–86. doi:10.1179/tns.1940.006.
  148. ^ Jones, S. R. H. (August 1978). "The Development of Needle Manufacturing in the West Midlands before 1750". The Economic History Review. 31 (3): 354–368. doi:10.2307/2598758. JSTOR 2598758.
  149. ^ a b McLaren, Kate (13 June 2015). "The Sewing Needle: A History through 16-19th Centuries". National Gallery of Victoria. Retrieved 2024-10-11.
  150. ^ Morrall, Michael T. (1862). History and description of needle making. Manchester: H. Briddon. p. 15. Retrieved 2024-10-05. fatal experience has told us that where the workmen [neeedle point grinders] are daily exposed to the influence of the dust produced by the grindstones, six or seven years will be sufficient to terminate their existence.
  151. ^ a b Turnbull, Stephen (2003). Ninja AD 1460–1650. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-8417-6525-2. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  152. ^ Turnbull, Stephen (2017). Ninja: unmasking the myth. Barnsley: Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1-47385-042-2.
  153. ^ Green, Thomas A., ed. (2001). "Ninjutsu". Martial arts of the world: an encyclopedia, Volume 1: A-Q. ABC-CLIO. pp. 355–361. ISBN 978-1-57607-150-2.
  154. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Oakum". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 935.
  155. ^ Blewett, Mary H. (2000). Constant turmoil: the politics of industrial life in nineteenth-century New England. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. p. 210. ISBN 1-5584-9239-9. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  156. ^ "Poor Law 1601". Socialist Health Association. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  157. ^ "Census of 1861 – Occupations – England and Wales". Ditto Books. Retrieved 2024-09-21.
  158. ^ Parker Jones, O.; Alfaro-Almagro, F.; Jbabdi, S. (2018). "An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology". Cortex. 106: 26–35. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011. PMC 6143440. PMID 29864593.
  159. ^ Fara, Patricia (2003). "Marginalized Practices". In Porter, Roy (ed.). The Cambridge History of Science: Eighteenth-century science. Vol. 4 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 495–497. ISBN 978-0-52157-243-9. Although we bracket physiognomy with Mesmerism as discredited or laughable belief, many eighteenth-century writers referred to it as a useful science with a long history ... Although many modern historians belittle physiognomy as a pseudoscience, at the end of the eighteenth century, it was not merely a popular fad, but also the subject of intense academic debate about the promises it held for progress.
  160. ^ Wiseman, Richard; Highfield, Roger; Jenkins, Rob (11 February 2009). "How your looks betray your personality". New Scientist. Retrieved 2024-10-07. It was only after the subject became associated with phrenology, which fell into disrepute in the late 19th century, that physiognomy was written off as pseudoscience.
  161. ^ Meyers, Meyers. "Bowling Pin Boy - A Teen Job That No Longer Exists". Heroes, Heroines, and History. Retrieved 2024-10-20.
  162. ^ Weiskopf, Herm (1978). The perfect game: the world of bowling. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-13657-015-8. Retrieved 2024-10-05. In the December 12, 1955, issue of Sports Illustrated, Victor Kalman described the immediate impact of the automatic pinsetter. "Many alleys [had been] forced to operate part time because [pinboys] were not available," Kalman wrote. "With 'automatics' an establishment [could] operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year—and many did....
  163. ^ a b Beaudry, Mary C. (2006). "The Lowly Pin". Findings: The Material Culture of Needlework and Sewing. Yale University Press. pp. 10–43. ISBN 978-0-30011-093-7.
  164. ^ Cipolla, Carlo M. (1977). "A plague doctor". In Miskimin, Harry A.; Herlihy, David; Udovitch, A.L. (eds.). The Medieval City. pp. 65–72. ISBN 0-3000-2081-3. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  165. ^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2006). Daily life during the Black Death. Daily life through history. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-3133-3297-5.
  166. ^ Gottfried, Robert S. (1983). The Black Death: natural and human disaster in medieval Europe. New York: The Free Press. pp. 125–128. ISBN 0-0291-2630-4.
  167. ^ Rogers, Fairman (1901). A manual of coaching. Philadelphia: J.P. Lippincott. pp. 278–283. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  168. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Driving". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 585.
  169. ^ Tappen, John (1816). The County and Town Officer, a Concise View of the Duties and Offices of County and Town Officers in the State of New York. Kingston, NY. pp. 362–363. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  170. ^ Lavery, Brian (1989). Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization 1793–1815. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. pp. 173–175. ISBN 0-8702-1258-3.
  171. ^ Kingston, William Henry Giles (1883). From powder-monkey to admiral. London: Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 12, 15, 36. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  172. ^ Burke, William P. (1914). "The Priest Catchers". The Irish priests in the penal times (1660–1760): from the State Papers in H.M. Record Office, Dublin and London, the Bodleian Library, and the British Museum. pp. 207–237. Retrieved 2024-10-07.
  173. ^ Chapman, John H. (1881). "The persecution under Elizabeth". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. IX: 21–43. Retrieved 2024-10-07.
  174. ^ Challoner, Richard (1924) [1741]. Pollen, John Hungerford (ed.). Memoirs of missionary priests, as well secular as regular, and of other Catholics of both sexes, that have suffered death in England on religious accounts from the year of Our Lord 1577 to 1684, by Richard Challoner. New York: P. J. Kenedy and sons. Retrieved 2024-10-07.
  175. ^ Lause, Mark A. (1991). Some Degree of Power: From hired hand to union craftsman in the preindustrial American printing trades, 1778–1815. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-55728-185-2. Retrieved 2024-10-07.
  176. ^ Pasko, Wesley Washington (1894). American dictionary of printing and bookmaking, containing a history of these arts in Europe and America, with definitions of technical terms and biographical sketches. New York: H. Lockwood & Co. p. 136. Retrieved 2024-10-07. Devil.- The errand-boy or youngest apprentice in a printing-office. This term is going out of use in America in common with the apprenticeship system
  177. ^ Thomson, Janice E. (1994). Mercenaries, pirates and sovereigns: state-building and extraterritorial violence in early modern Europe. Princeton University Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-6910-8658-3. In international law, privateers are defined as "vessels belonging to private owners, and sailing under a commission of war empowering the person to whom it is granted to carry on all forms of hostility which are permissible at sea by the usages of war." Privateers are usually required to post a bond to ensure their compliance with the government's instructions, and their commissions are subject to inspection by public warships.
  178. ^ Dyer, Brainerd (1934). "Confederate Naval and Privateering Activities in the Pacific". Pacific Historical Review. 3 (4): 433–443. doi:10.2307/3633146. JSTOR 3633146.
  179. ^ Petrie, Donald A. (1999). The Prize Game: Lawful Looting on the High Seas in the Days of Fighting Sail. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. pp. 140–142. ISBN 1-5575-0669-8. Retrieved 2024-10-07.
  180. ^ Datta, Arunima (September 2019). "Keeping India Cool". History Today. 69 (9): 54–63. ISSN 0018-2753.
  181. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Punkah" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 657.
  182. ^ Stafford, Pauline (2014). "Reeve". In Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald (eds.). The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England (second ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 397–398. ISBN 978-0-47065-632-7.
  183. ^ a b Bennett, H. S. (1938). Life on the English Manor: A Study of Peasant Conditions, 1150–1400. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-5210-9105-5. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
  184. ^ Loyn, H. R. (1991). Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-58207-296-1. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
  185. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Resident" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 183.
  186. ^ "Resin-Tapping". Nature. 68 (1769): 499. 1903. Bibcode:1903Natur..68Q.499.. doi:10.1038/068499a0. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
  187. ^ Krasnodębski, Marcin (2017). "Can Science Feed on a Crisis? Expectations, the Pine Institute, and the Decline of the French Resin Industry". Science in Context. 30 (1). Cambridge University Press: 61–87. doi:10.1017/S0269889717000035. ISSN 0269-8897. PMID 28397647.
  188. ^ a b Cressy, David (2013). Saltpeter: The Mother of Gunpowder. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19969-575-1. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  189. ^ Multhauf, Robert P. (1971). "The French Crash Program for Saltpeter Production, 1776–94". Technology and Culture. 12 (2): 163–181. doi:10.2307/3102523. JSTOR 3102523.
  190. ^ Wisniak, Jaime (2000). "The History of Saltpeter Production with a Bit of Pyrotechnics and Lavoisier". Chemical Educator. 5 (4): 205–209. doi:10.1007/s008970000401a.
  191. ^ Vaporis, Constantine Nomikos (14 March 2019). Samurai: An Encyclopedia of Japan's Cultured Warriors. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-44084-270-2.
  192. ^ Rickman, John (August 2003). "Sunset of the Samurai". Military History. Vol. 20, no. 3. pp. 42–49.
  193. ^ Cook, Harry (1993). Samurai: the story of a warrior tradition. New York: Sterling Pub. Co. p. 25. ISBN 0-8069-0377-5. Retrieved 2024-10-09. From the 10th century onwards, strong samurai leaders began to exert an increasing influence over the direction of Japanese history.
  194. ^ Richardson, A. E. (2008) [1931]. Georgian England: A Survey of Social Life, Trades, Industries & Art from 1700 to 1820. JM Classic Editions. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-90660-000-6. Retrieved 2024-09-30. Another trade which was then essential was that of the sawyer, who cut up timber for builders. This was a very laborious task, but it was comparatively lucrative. At the close of the century sawing-machines worked by steam were introduced into the Royal dockyards.
  195. ^ Harper, Douglas (2010). "Scribe". Dictionary.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Dictionary.com, LLC. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
  196. ^ Wikisource This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Scribes". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
  197. ^ "Scrivener". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  198. ^ "The Society of Scrivener Notaries - History". The Society of Scrivener Notaries. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  199. ^ Islam, Siraju (2012). "Palanquin". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Retrieved 2024-10-17.
  200. ^ a b Hart, Harold W. (1962). "The Sedan Chair as a Means of Public Conveyance". The Journal of Transport History. fs-5 (4): 205–218. doi:10.1177/002252666200500403.
  201. ^ "Senechal". Encyclopaedia Perthensis; or Universal dictionary of the arts, sciences, literature, &c. intended to supersede the use of other books of reference. Vol. 20. p. 437. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  202. ^ "Senechal". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  203. ^ Wells, Jonathan Daniel (2019). Blind No More African American Resistance, Free-Soil Politics, and the Coming of the Civil War. University of Georgia Press. pp. 12, 44, 86–88. ISBN 978-0-82035-484-2.
  204. ^ a b Schwartz, Stuart B. (1996). Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels Reconsidering Brazilian Slavery. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-2520-1874-5. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  205. ^ Goveia, E. V. (1970). The West Indian slave laws of the 18th century. Caribbean Universities Press. pp. 35, 45–46. ISBN 0-6022-1591-9. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  206. ^ "13th Amendment". Legal Information Institute. Cornell University Law School. November 20, 2012. Archived from the original on November 24, 2009. Retrieved 2024-10-15.
  207. ^ a b c Funderburg, Anne Cooper (2002). Sundae best - a history of soda fountains. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-853-3.
  208. ^ Witzel, Michael Karl (2002). "Splendour of the Soda Fountains". The American Drive-in Restaurant. St Paul, MN: MBI Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 0-7603-1350-4. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  209. ^ Adams, Samuel; Adams, Sarah (1989) [1825]. The complete servant. Lewes: Southover Press. p. 4. ISBN 1-8709-6209-5.
  210. ^ Olson, Nancy (2014-05-09). "A Revolution in Stockings | Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum". www.cooperhewitt.org. Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  211. ^ a b c Delo, David Michael (1992). Peddlers and Post Traders: The Army Sutler on the Frontier. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-8748-0402-7. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  212. ^ Cardoza, Thomas (2010). Intrepid Women: Cantinières and Vivandières of the French Army. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 12–16. ISBN 978-0-25335-451-8. Retrieved 2024-10-15.
  213. ^ Spear, D. P. (June 1970). "The Sutler in the Union Army". Civil War History. 2 (16): 121–138. doi:10.1353/cwh.1970.0076.
  214. ^ Tapson, Alfred J. (1957). "The Sutler and the Soldier". Military Affairs. 21 (4): 175–181. doi:10.2307/1985594. JSTOR 1985594.
  215. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Telephone". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 551.
  216. ^ "Pulling the Plug : Phone Company to Replace Last Manual Switchboard". Los Angeles Times. 8 April 1991.
  217. ^ Feigenbaum, James; Gross, Daniel P. (August 2024). "Answering the Call of Automation: How the Labor Market Adjusted to Mechanizing Telephone Operation". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 139 (3): 1879–1939. doi:10.1093/qje/qjae005.
  218. ^ "Let there be light – The City of London and the Tallow Candle Trade". Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  219. ^ Phillips, Gordon (1999). The Tallow Chandlers Company - Seven Centuries of Light. Granta Editions. ISBN 978-1-85757-064-9.
  220. ^ Hochfelder, David (2012). The telegraph in America, 1832–1920. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-42140-747-0.
  221. ^ Muse, Tyler (March 7, 2024). "The telegraph operator". History Oasis. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  222. ^ MgGillem, Clare D. (September 16, 2024). "Telegraph". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  223. ^ a b c Beattie, J. M. (1986). Crime and the Courts in England 1660-1800. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-6910-5437-1. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  224. ^ Howson, Gerald (1970). Thief-Taker General. Transaction Books. ISBN 0-8873-8032-8. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  225. ^ a b Tobias, J. J. (1979). Crime and Police in England. 1700-1900. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-3125-4782-X. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  226. ^ Wales, Tim (2000). "Thief-takers and their clients in later Stuart London". In Griffiths, Paul; Jenner, Mark S. R. (eds.). Londinopolis: Essays in the cultural and social history of early modern London. Manchester University Press. pp. 67–84. ISBN 978-0-71905-152-4. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  227. ^ Mason, Michele M. (2012). Dominant Narratives of Colonial Hokkaido and Imperial Japan: Envisioning the Periphery and the Modern Nation-State. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 34–55. ISBN 978-1-34945-025-1. Retrieved 2024-10-16.
  228. ^ Irish, Ann B. (2009). Hokkaido: A History of Ethnic Transition and Development on Japan's Northern Island. McFarland. pp. 119–127. ISBN 978-0-78644-449-6. Retrieved 2024-10-16.
  229. ^ Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. Vol. 8. Kodansha. 1983. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-87011-628-5.
  230. ^ Mitchell, David (2010). For Crying Out Loud: The Story of the Town Crier and Bellman, Past and Present. Avenue Books. ISBN 978-1-90557-510-7.
  231. ^ Mitchell, David (2019). The Word on the Street: A History of the Town Crier and Bellman. Widespread Books. ISBN 978-1-91600-470-2.
  232. ^ Du, P.; Koenig, A. (2012). "History of water supply in pre-modern China". In Angelakis, Andreas N.; Mays, Larry W.; Koutsoyiannis, Demetris; Mamassis, Nikos (eds.). Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-84339-540-9. Retrieved 2024-10-16.
  233. ^ a b Wang, Di (2003). Street Culture in Chengdu: Public Space, Urban Commoners, and Local Politics, 1870–1930. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-80474-778-3.
  234. ^ "An Irish Water Carrier". The Aldine. 9 (1): 46–39. 1878. JSTOR 20637482.
  235. ^ Houdaille, Jacques (1995). "Les porteurs d'eau a Paris en 1793" [The water carriers of Paris in 1793]. Population (French Edition) (in French). 50 (4/5). Institut National d'Etudes Démographiques: 1245–1247. doi:10.2307/1534325. JSTOR 1534325. Until recently, running water was not widely available in Paris. It was supplied from public fountains. The poor went there themselves, the bourgeois sent their servants; the richest used the services of water carriers. [Translated from the original French.]
  236. ^ "History". Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights. Retrieved 2024-09-21.
  237. ^ "Census of 1841 – Occupations". Ditto Books. Retrieved 2024-09-21.
  238. ^ 1871 census, England and Wales; ages, civil condition, occupations and birthplaces. Shannon: Irish University Press. 1970 [1873]. ISBN 978-0-71651-195-3. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  239. ^ Bulliet, Richard W. (2016). The Wheel: Inventions & Reinventions. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-23117-338-4. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  240. ^ Laman, N.K. (June 1959). "The development of the wire-drawing industry". Metallurgist. 3 (6): 267–270. doi:10.1007/bf00740175.
  241. ^ Sherwood, Craig (November 20, 2021). "Wire Drawing". Warrington Museum & Art Gallery. Retrieved 2024-09-21.
  242. ^ Newbury, Brian D.; Notis, Michael R. (February 2004). "The history and evolution of wiredrawing techniques". Journal of Metals. 56 (2): 33–37. Bibcode:2004JOM....56b..33N. doi:10.1007/s11837-004-0142-2.
  243. ^ St. Clair, Kassia (2016). The secret lives of colour. London: John Murray. p. 200. ISBN 9781473630819. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  244. ^ Edmonds, J. (1998). The history of woad and the medieval woad vat (PDF). p. 29. ISBN 0-9534-1330-6. Retrieved 2024-10-17.
  245. ^ "The Woad plant and its dye: A review". Scottish Geographical Magazine. 47 (5): 282–283. 1931. doi:10.1080/00369223108734802.
  246. ^ Hurry, J. B. (1930). The woad plant and its dye. Oxford University Press. p. 51. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  247. ^ Burnley, James (1889). The history of wool and woolcombing. London: S. Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington. Retrieved 2024-09-19.

Read other articles:

Oswaldo Sánchez

Oswaldo Sánchez Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Oswaldo Javier Sánchez IbarraTanggal lahir 21 September 1973 (umur 50)Tempat lahir Guadalajara, Jalisco, MeksikoTinggi 1,85 m (6 ft 1 in)Posisi bermain Penjaga gawangInformasi klubKlub saat ini Santos LagunaNomor 1Karier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)1993–1996 Atlas 81 (0)1996–1999 Club América 76 (0)1999–2007 Guadalajara 272 (0)2007– Santos Laguna 227 (0)Tim nasional1993 Meksiko U-20 4 (0)1996–2011[1] Meks...

 

 

Owaki

Owaki Aviceda Black baza (Aviceda leuphotes)TaksonomiKerajaanAnimaliaFilumChordataKelasAvesOrdoAccipitriformesFamiliAccipitridaeGenusAviceda Swainson, 1836 Specieslbs Baza, [1] atau owaki, Aviceda, adalah genus burung pemangsa dalam keluarga Accipitridae . Genus ini mempunyai sebaran luas dari Australia hingga Asia Selatan dan hingga Afrika . Owaki kadang-kadang dikenal sebagai elang-kangkok . Jambul yang menonjol adalah ciri khas burung owaki. Mereka memiliki dua lekukan seperti gigi...

 

 

كارل لودفيغ فيلدينوف

كارل لودفيغ فيلدينوف (بالألمانية: Carl (Karl) Ludwig von bear)‏  معلومات شخصية الميلاد 22 أغسطس 1765(1765-08-22)برلين الوفاة 10 يوليو 1812 (46 سنة)برلين الإقامة مملكة بروسيا  مواطنة مملكة بروسيا عضو في الأكاديمية الملكية السويدية للعلوم،  والأكاديمية البروسية للعلوم،  والأكاديمية البا...

Law enforcement in South Korea

This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Hyundai Sonata police car in Gimhae, South Korea. South Korean and North Korean authorities at the South Korea-North Korea border. South Korea has a relatively unified and integrated approach to law enforcement. For example, the National Police...

 

 

Bryony Worthington

Pour les articles homonymes, voir Worthington. Bryony WorthingtonFonctionMembre de la Chambre des lordsdepuis le 31 janvier 2011BiographieNaissance 19 septembre 1971 (52 ans)Pays de GallesNationalités britanniquegalloiseFormation Queens' College, CambridgeActivité Femme politiqueAutres informationsParti politique Parti travaillistemodifier - modifier le code - modifier Wikidata Bryony Katherine Worthington, baronne Worthington, (née le 19 septembre 1971)[1],[2], est une militante éc...

 

 

Zitti e buoni

Zitti e buoni Chanson de Måneskin auConcours Eurovision de la chanson 2021 Sortie 3 mars 2021 Langue Italien Genre Rock Auteur-compositeur Damiano David, Ethan Torchio, Thomas Raggi, Victoria De Angelis Chansons représentant l’Italie au Concours Eurovision de la chanson Fai rumore(2020) Brividi(2022) Chansons ayant remporté le Concours Eurovision de la chanson Arcade(2019) Stefania(2022)modifier Zitti e buoni Single de Måneskinextrait de l'album Zitti e buoni - Single Sortie ...

Distretti del Galles

Nel 1974 il Galles fu ri-diviso per scopi di amministrazione locale in 37 distretti. Ogni contea amministrativa (vedi Contee preservate del Galles) era composta da alcuni distretti. Dal 1996 i distretti sono confluiti nelle aree principali. Per i distretti prima del 1974, vedi Lista di distretti urbani e rurali del Galles. Vecchi distretti Codice Distretto Status Contea preservata Suddivisione successiva Capoluogo Superficie km² Popolazione (stimata 1974) Popolazione (stimata 1992) GD4 Aberc...

 

 

美国众议院

此條目需要补充更多来源。 (2021年7月4日)请协助補充多方面可靠来源以改善这篇条目，无法查证的内容可能會因為异议提出而被移除。致使用者：请搜索一下条目的标题（来源搜索：美国众议院 — 网页、新闻、书籍、学术、图像），以检查网络上是否存在该主题的更多可靠来源（判定指引）。 美國眾議院 United States House of Representatives第118届美国国会众议院徽章 众议院旗...

 

 

State constitutions in the United States

Constitution of a state in the United States of America This article is part of a series on theState governments of the United States State constitution Comparison Statehouse Executive State executives Governor (List) Other common officials: Attorney general Auditor/Comptroller Lieutenant governor Secretary of state Treasurer Agriculture commissioner List of statewide elected officials Legislative State representatives (Alabama to Missouri, Montana to Wyoming) State senators List of legislatu...

Latin American Idol season 2

Top 3 (dark green), Top 12 (slightly dark green), Top 30 (green) and Top 100 (light green) The second season of Latin American Idol premiered on June 13, 2007, and continued until September 27, 2007, when it was won by Guatemalan born Carlos Peña. Auditions were held in Caracas, Bogotá, Mexico City, and Buenos Aires in the spring of 2007. The concerts began on July in Buenos Aires, Argentina, the host country. For this season the judge Elizabeth Meza quit, and the Mexican singer Mimi was hi...

 

 

Andreas Görlitz

Artikel ini perlu dikembangkan agar dapat memenuhi kriteria sebagai entri Wikipedia.Bantulah untuk mengembangkan artikel ini. Jika tidak dikembangkan, artikel ini akan dihapus. Andreas Görlitz Görlitz while at KarlsruheInformasi pribadiTanggal lahir 31 Januari 1982 (umur 42)Tempat lahir Weilheim, West GermanyTinggi 1,79 m (5 ft 10+1⁄2 in)Posisi bermain Right backInformasi klubKlub saat ini Free agentKarier junior1989–1996 TSV Rott/Lech1996–2002 1860 MunichKarie...

 

 

Daftar Presiden Kirgizstan

Presiden Republik KirgizstanBendera kepresidenanPetahanaSooronbay Jeenbekovsejak 24 November 2017Masa jabatanEnam tahunPejabat perdanaAskar AkayevDibentuk27 Oktober 1990Situs webPresident of Kyrgyz Republic Presiden Kirgizstan adalah kepala negara dan pejabat tertinggi di Republik Kirgizstan. Mereka dipilih secara langsung untuk masa tidak lebih dari 2x5 tahun. No. Nama Gambar Mulai menjabat Akhir jabatan Partai 1 Askar Akayev 27 Oktober 1990 24 Maret 2005 Non-partisan * Ishenbai Kadyrbe...

Seo Eun-kwang

Ini adalah nama Korea; marganya adalah Seo. Seo Eun-kwangNama asal서은광LahirSeo Eun-kwang22 November 1990 (umur 33)Seoul, Korea SelatanPekerjaanPenyanyi, Penghibur , Musical actorKarier musikGenreK-popTahun aktif2012–sekarangLabelCube EntertainmentArtis terkaitBtoBSitus webbtobofficial.com Nama KoreaHangul서은광 Hanja徐恩光[1] Alih AksaraSeo Eun-gwangMcCune–ReischauerSo Ŭngwang Seo Eun-kwang (Hangul: 서은광; lahir 22 November 1990) adalah penyanyi,...

 

 

Claudelands Rovers

Football clubClaudelands RoversFull nameClaudelands Rovers Football ClubFounded1923GroundGalloway Park, Hamilton EastLeagueNRFL Southern Conference2023NRFL Southern Conference, 4th of 8 Home colours Claudelands Rovers is a semi professional football club in New Zealand. It is based in the Hamilton suburb of Hamilton East. Claudelands Rovers Premier Men's Team plays in the NRFL Southern Conference. The club also fields an U-23 Northern League team as a reserve grade side, and men's teams in s...

 

 

جامع أردكان

جامع أردكان إحداثيات 32°19′09″N 54°01′10″E / 32.319166666667°N 54.019444444444°E / 32.319166666667; 54.019444444444   معلومات عامة الموقع أردكان[1][2]  القرية أو المدينة أردكان، محافظة يزد الدولة  إيران تاريخ الافتتاح الرسمي 1506[2]  أبعاد المبنى التفاصيل التقنية المواد المست�...

Saint-Amand (Pas-de-Calais)

Pour les articles homonymes, voir Saint-Amand. Saint-Amand L'église. Blason Administration Pays France Région Hauts-de-France Département Pas-de-Calais Arrondissement Arras Intercommunalité Communauté de communes des Campagnes de l'Artois Maire Mandat Jean-Louis Lebas 2020-2026 Code postal 62760 Code commune 62741 Démographie Gentilé Saint-Amandinois Populationmunicipale 116 hab. (2021 ) Densité 21 hab./km2 Géographie Coordonnées 50° 09′ 56″ nord, 2°&...

 

 

أمازون سيلك

أمازون سيلكالشعارمعلومات عامةنوع متصفح ويب نظام التشغيل أندرويد المطورون أمازون موقع الويب amazon.com… (الإنجليزية) تعديل - تعديل مصدري - تعديل ويكي بيانات أمازون سيلك هو متصفح ويب تم تطويره بواسطة شركة أمازون. تم إطلاقه في نوفمبر 2011 لهاتف كيندل فاير،[1] �...

 

 

Romeo and Juliet

Tragedy by William Shakespeare This article is about the play by William Shakespeare. For the titular characters, see Romeo and Juliet. For other uses, see Romeo and Juliet (disambiguation). Romeo and JulietAn 1870 oil painting by Ford Madox Brown depicting the play's balcony sceneWritten byWilliam ShakespeareCharacters Romeo Juliet Count Paris Mercutio Tybalt The Nurse Rosaline Benvolio Friar Laurence Date premiered1597[a]Original languageEarly Modern EnglishSeriesFirst QuartoSubject...

Venere (astronomia)

VenereVenere, fotografato in colori reali dalla sonda MESSENGER Stella madreSole ClassificazionePianeta terrestre Parametri orbitali(all'epoca J2000) Semiasse maggiore1,0821×108 km0,72333917250067 au[1] Perielio1,0748×108 km0,71845942390141 au Afelio1,0894×108 km0,72821892109992 au Circonf. orbitale6,8×108 km4,5455192431425 au[2] Periodo orbitale224,701 giorni(0,61520 anni)[1] Periodo sinodico583,92 giorni(1,5987 anni)[1&...

 

 

Mobil pengintai

Sebuah BRDM-2, mobil intai modern yang paling umum. Mobil pengintai adalah kendaraan lapis baja ringan beroda yang dibuat khusus untuk pengintaian pasif.[1] Mobil pengintai tidak bersenjata atau dipersenjatai ringan untuk pertahanan diri dan tidak membawa sistem senjata kaliber besar.[1] Ini membedakan mereka dari mobil lapis baja yang membawa persenjataan yang lebih berat atau kendaraan tempur infanteri beroda, yang keduanya juga dapat digunakan untuk pengintaian.[catatan...