Academic rank (also scientific rank) is the rank of a scientist or teacher in a college, high school, university or research establishment. The academic ranks indicate relative importance and power of individuals in academia.
In most cases, the academic rank is automatically attached to a person at the time of employment in a position with the same name, and deprived when a working relationship ends. Thus, the term "academic rank" usually means the same as "position in academia".
In some countries, however, the terms "position" and "academic rank" are not synonymous. So in modern Russia there exist the docent and professor ranks, yet the set of positions in academia is broader. The academic rank is conferred only after the person has been successfully working in the docent or professor position for a certain period (and later underwent a centralized control procedure), i.e. not at enrollment, and is kept for life.[2]
The list of academic ranks below identifies the hierarchical ranking structure found amongst scholars and personnel in academia. The lists below refer specifically to colleges and universities throughout the world, although other institutions of higher learning may follow a similar schema.
Afghanistan
Ranks in universities of Afghanistan are listed below according to the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) of Afghanistan. These ranks are issued stepwise by the MoHE after some procedures, a period of service and conditions.[3]
Ranks in universities of Albania are listed below according to the Ministry of Education (Albania).
These ranks are issued stepwise by the MoHE after some procedures, a period of service and conditions.
Assistant Lecturer
Lecturer with Dr. or PhD degree
Associate Professor
Professor
Algeria
Academic ranks
Professeur / Professeur hospitalo-universitaire (أستاذ / أستاذ إستشفائي-جامعي ), equivalent to Professor
Maître de Conférences, classe A / Maître de Conférences hospitalo-universitaire, classe A (أستاذ محاضر قسم أ/أستاذ محاضر إستشفائي-جامعي قسم أ), equivalent to Associate Professor(Level A)
Maître de Conférences, classe B / Maître de Conférences hospitalo-universitaire, classe B (أستاذ محاضر قسم أ/أستاذ محاضر إستشفائي-جامعي قسم ب), equivalent to Associate Professor (Level B)
Maître Assistant, classe A / Maître Assistant hospitalo-universitaire, classe A (أستاذ مساعد قسم أ/أستاذ مساعد إستشفائي-جامعي قسم أ), equivalent to Lecturer or Assistant professor (Level A)
Maître Assistant, classe B (أستاذ مساعد قسم ب), equivalent to Lecturer or Assistant professor (Level B)
Distinguished Professor, Emeritus Professor, and other professorships with highest honour and contributions to knowledge and society.
Level E – Professor, or Professorial or Senior Principal Research Fellow; equivalent to Distinguished/Endowed Professor (US) or Professor (UK).
Level D – Associate Professor, or Principal Research Fellow if research intensive; equivalent to Reader/Associate Professor at a UK university.
Level C – Senior Lecturer, or Senior Research Fellow if research intensive; equivalent to Senior/Principal Lecturer at a UK university.
Level B – Lecturer, or Research Fellow if research intensive; Level B is the first tenured academic rank, normally requires at minimum, completion of a PhD.
Level A - Associate Lecturer, or Associate Fellow if research intensive.
There are often multiple bands or steps for each Level (e.g. Level B - 6 steps, Level C - 6 steps, Level D - 4 steps). For example, an academic who earns the title of Level D has progressed through 12 bands/steps of previous academic service or the equivalent in accumulated academic achievements. There is only one step for Level E. An academic cannot automatically progress from Level B, Step 6, to Level C, Step 1, without a formal application for promotion, which is typically a peer reviewed process.
Bangladesh
Teachers are categorized in four main classes in Bangladesh at the university level. The ascending ranks of teachers are lecturer, assistant professor, associate professor and professor. University lecturers are normally required to hold a master's degree. After obtaining a PhD, the appointment starts with assistant professor, then gradually associate professor and professor depending on research/teaching experience. Beside these, the title of emeritus is given to extraordinary professors after their retirement.
Chef de travaux agrégé (senior researcher, with Ph.D. and previously with teaching aggregation)
Maître de recherche (senior researcher / senior research associate, with Ph.D., appointed by National Fund for Scientific Research F.R.S.-FNRS, tenured)
Chef de travaux (senior researcher, with Ph.D.)
Chercheur qualifié (senior researcher / research associate, with Ph.D., appointed by federal research council FNRS, tenured)
Premier assistant (senior research assistant / junior lecturer, with Ph.D.)
Maître d'enseignement (volunteer lecturer, with Ph.D., unpaid, non-tenured)
Maître de conférences (lecturer, with Ph.D., paid by the hour, non-tenured)
Chargé de recherche (appointed by National Fund for Scientific Research F.R.S.-FNRS)
Assistant [de recherche] (research assistant)
Aspirant (research fellow, enrolled in a Ph.D. degree, appointed by National Fund for Scientific Research F.R.S.-FNRS)
Administrative ranks:
Recteur (president of university)
Vice-Recteur
Doyen (dean, i.e. head of a faculty, elected)
Président d'institut (director of research institute, elected)
Vice-Doyen (vice-dean, i.e. head of studies in a faculty)
Président de département (department head, elected)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Profesor – full professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate and have experience of minimum of six[5] years as a Vanredni profesor)
Vanredni profesor – associate professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate and have experience of minimum of five years as a Docent)
Docent – assistant professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate Degree. Relevant working experience could be required as well)
Viši Asistent – senior teaching assistant (Must hold at least Masters Degree with excellent grades. Relevant working experience could be required as well)
Asistent – teaching assistant (Must hold Undergraduate Degree with excellent grades. Relevant working experience could be required as well)
Administrative ranks
Rektor – rector / chancellor / president / head of university
Prorektor – prorector / vice-chancellor / vice president / assistant head of university
Dekan – dean / head of faculty or school at the university
Prodekan – vice-dean / assistant head of faculty or school at the university
There is no official academic ranking in Brazilian private universities. However, most of the public Federal Universities apply the following (from the highest position to the lowest one):
Professor Emérito (professor emeritus)
Professor Titular (full professor) – PhD required
Professor Associado (associate professor) – PhD required
Professor Adjunto (assistant professor) – PhD required
Professor Assistente (lecturer) – only a master's degree is required
Professor Auxiliar (assistant lecturer) – no post-graduation degree is required
Professor Substituto ou Temporário (temporary lecturer)
Bulgaria
Professor/Full Professor – Професор
Docent/Associate Professor – Доцент
Chief/Senior Assistant Professor – Главен Асистент
Assistant Professor – Асистент
University
Assistant Professor – Асистент
Chief/Senior Assistant Professor – Главен Асистент
Docent/Associate Professor – Доцент
Professor/Full Professor – Професор
Academy of Sciences
Scientist III: after Master thesis or Diploma, equal to Assistant
Scientist II: after Doctoral thesis/PhD/Dissertation, after Dr. Grade (3–5 or 7 years work after Master), equal Chef Assistant, *Associate or Post Doc
Scientist I: After second Post Doc (1 or 2 years work after PhD/Dr), equal Senior Assistant or Senior Associate.
Senior Scientist I: after PhD (US, UK....) or Doctoral dissertation/thesis (France, Germany, Russia...) and some years of *Post-Doc, equal of Assoc. Prof.
Senior Scientist II: after Habilitation, equal to Professor
Full Professor
Higher administration of the academy of sciences
Member of correspondence for the Academy of Science (after professor/habilitation), very rare
Academic: after member of correspondence (for the entire of Bulgaria).
Professor emeritus or university professor emeritus, a retired professor still active in research; Fr professeur émérite
Endowed chair professor (e.g. Canada Research Chair professor - Tier 1), a distinguished full professor with endowment
Professor or full professor (research professor, professor of practice, visiting professor, adjunct professor, professor emeritus; Fr professeur titulaire)
Associate professor (research associate professor, visiting associate professor, adjunct associate professor; Fr professeur agrégé)
Senior Lecturer (teaching professor)
Assistant professor (research assistant professor, adjunct assistant professor; Fr professeur adjoint)
Lecturer or instructor (sessional lecturer or sessional instructor; Fr chargé de cours)
Clinical Faculty (Professional academic staff)
Clinical professor
Clinical associate professor
Clinical assistant professor
Clinical instructor
Clinical instructor is the entry-level rank for clinical members of faculty.
Non-faculty teaching and research personnel
Senior fellow, senior research fellow or senior scientist / Fr chercheur sénior
Fellow, research fellow or scientist / Fr chercheur
In Chile there is no general law that establishes the academic ranges, although the following are normally used: Profesor Titular (full professor), Profesor Asociado (associate professor), Profesor Asistente (assistant professor), and Instructor.
The University of Chile, the oldest university in the country, distinguishes three academic categories: Ordinary Category, Teaching Category, Adjunct Category, and Postdoctoral Researcher.[6] "Each category has its own academic ranks. Academics in the Ordinary Academic Category must carry out higher education and research or artistic creation". "Academics in the Academic Teaching Category must perform superior teaching, supported by outstanding professional work in the field of their academic work". "Academics in the Adjunct Academic Category must perform superior teaching, or scientific research, or artistic creation, or extension". "They must also demonstrate outstanding academic or professional work in the field of their discipline". In addition, there are three academic statuses: Profesor emérito, Profesor honorario de Facultad o Instituto y Profesor visitante.
The Ordinary Academic Career and the Academic Teaching Career have the following ranks:
Profesor titular (A tenured, full professor position. It is the highest academic rank of the University).
Profesor asociado (A tenured, associate professor position).
Profesor asistente
Instructor
The rank of Instructor "correspond to a stage of training and improvement, and verification of aptitudes for the university task". The ranks of Profesor Asistente, Profesor Asociado, y Profesor Titular "correspond to academics fully trained for the university task, with the capacity to perform it in a creative and suitable way, with varying degrees of autonomy according to the level". The ranks of profesor asociado y profesor titular are decided by the University's senior evaluation committee. The other ranks are decided by commissions of each faculty.
The Adjunct category has only the rank of Associate Professor. The Postdoctoral Researcher category has no other rank.
The Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile has the same three hierarchies of Profesor Titular, Profesor Asociado and Profesor Asistente for the ordinary academic category.[7] It also recognizes five adjunct academic categories: Profesor adjunto, Instructor adjunto, Investigador adjunto, Investigador postdoctoral y Profesor visitante.
Emeritus or Distinguished professor (Profesor Emérito)
Professor (Profesor Catedrático)
Associate professor (Profesor Asociado)
Adjunct professor (Profesor Adjunto)
Instructor professor (Profesor Instructor)
Visiting professor (Profesor Visitante)
The list above presents the ranks used by University of Costa Rica for their academic regime. However, there are no formal or legal academic ranks in Costa Rica.
Each university decides their own names. For example in University of Costa Rica the highest rank is 'Profesor Catedrático' and it requires no more than a 5 year "licencitatura" degree and 15 years of teaching/researching and 16 publications (https://www.ucr.ac.cr/docencia/personal-docente.html). Most other universities have no similar framework and the title Professor is used unregulated by anyone.
Croatia
Redoviti profesor u trajnom zvanju equivalent to distinguished professor (prof. dr. sc. Name Surname)
Redoviti profesor equivalent to full professor (prof. dr. sc. Name Surname)
Izvanredni profesor equivalent to associate professor (izv. prof. dr. sc. Name Surname)
Docent equivalent to assistant professor (doc. dr. sc. Name Surname)
Viši asistent equivalent to postdoctoral fellow/researcher (dr. sc. Name Surname)
Asistent equivalent to teaching/research assistant, usually a doctoral student
Viši predavač equivalent to senior lecturer
Predavač equivalent to lecturer
Honorary academic rank
Professor emeritus – awarded to some professors in retirement
Administrative ranks
Rektor equivalent to rector, head of university (in US equivalent to president of university)
Prorektor equivalent to prorector, assistant to head of university (in US equivalent to vice-president of university)
Dekan equivalent to dean, head of faculty or school in university
Prodekan equivalent to vice-dean, assistant to dean
Pročelnik odsjeka equivalent to department chairman
Predstojnik zavoda/katedre equivalent to head of department
Cuba
Honorary:
Professor Emeritus (granted at the University level by a Rector's decree)
Consultant Professor (usually for retired but still active professors)
Tenured:
Professor (Profesor Titular) (full/part-time, PhD required)
Associate Professor (Profesor Auxiliar) (full/part-time, PhD mostly required)
Non-tenured:
Assistant Professor (Profesor Asistente) (full/part-time)
Lecturer (Instructor) (full/part-time)
Intern (Adiestrado) (a recent graduate with a bachelor degree, usually from the same institution)
Teachers are categorized in five main classes in Egypt at university level. The ascending rank of teacher is demonstrator, assistant lecturer, lecturer, assistant professor and professor. The initial position, demonstrator, is generally enrolled as the top student of the class. Master's degree is required for university-level assistant lecturer. After PhD, the appointment starts with lecturer, then gradually associate professor and professor, depending on research/teaching experience. Beside these, professor of emeritus is given to extraordinary professor after their retirement.
OSTADH MOTAFAREGH (أستاذ متفرغ), equivalent to Professor Emeritus
OSTADH (أستاذ) (the "DH" pronounced like the "TH" in the word "THE"), equivalent to Professor (usually after minimum of five years serving as OSTATH MOSAED as well as publishing certain number of research papers)
OSTADH (the "DH" pronounced like the "TH" in the word "THE") MOSAED (أستاذ مساعد), equivalent to Associate Professor
MODARRES (مدرس), equivalent to Assistant Professor (must have a PhD degree)
MODARRES MOSA'ED (مدرس مساعد), Lecturer (must have a master's degree)
MOA'ED (معيد), or Teaching Assistant- also called demonstrator- (must have a bachelor's degree; usually graduated top of the class)
In Finland, there is less distinction between graduates and undergraduates: university students may be employed as research assistants (tutkimusapulainen) before they graduate with a master's degree. A person pursuing a doctoral degree must already hold a Master's degree, and is typically employed by the university, or enjoys a similar grant, and will be called väitöskirjatutkija (doctoral researcher), nuorempi tutkija (early career researcher), or tohtorikoulutettava (doctoral student).[8] Besides post-doctoral researchers (tutkijatohtori) and senior teaching assistants (yliassistentti), there are several mid-level non-professorial positions, such as teaching researcher (opettava tutkija). Senior teachers and researchers may be employed as, e.g., erikoistutkija (special researcher) or yliopistotutkija (senior research fellow). Docent (dosentti) is a non-professorial rank and title (for life) awarded to academics qualified as a principal investigator and for supervision of doctoral students; however, they do not belong to the professor corps and may be employed elsewhere. Professors (professori) are understood as research group leaders and managers, and traditionally there is no direct equivalent of an assistant/associate/full professor career path, although Aalto University is introducing these. Qualifications for a professor's position are earned as a docent or in other mid-career positions. In management, professors serve as department heads (laitosjohtaja or osastonjohtaja) and deans (head of the faculty, dekaani). The leader of a university is called a rector (rehtori), assisted by multiple vice-rectors (vararehtori). Vice-rectors may retain their professor positions or work full-time as a vice-rector. Some universities have an even more senior officer called Chancellor (kansleri), who is more concerned with outreach and public relations than daily management.
A simplified overview of academic ranks in Germany:
Faculty
Teaching only
Part-time
Permanent positions
Universitätsprofessor (Pay grade: W3 or W2), Professor (W3)
Lehrprofessor
Honorarprofessor (honorary title)
Professor (W2)
Professor (W1), Akademischer Oberrat, Akademischer Rat, Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter (tenured)
Lehrkraft für besondere Aufgaben (LfbA) (tenured)
Temporary positions
Akademischer Rat auf Zeit, Akademischer Oberrat auf Zeit (AR/OAR a.Z.), Juniorprofessor (W1 non-tenured), Professor auf Zeit (W2)
Lehrkraft für besondere Aufgaben (LfbA) (non-tenured)
Lehrbeauftragter
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter
Wissenschaftliche Hilfskraft
Appointment grades
Universitätsprofessor (Pay grade: W3 or W2)
Professor (W3)
Professor (W2)
Hochschuldozent (W2, only in Baden-Württemberg) – although paid like a professor appointed at level W2, lecturers in this position do not have a professor title; the term was formerly used in all states for senior lecturer positions with research and teaching responsibilities (C2, being phased out since 2002)
Juniorprofessor (not tenured, only rarely with tenure track) (W1)
Juniordozent (not tenured) (W1, only in Baden-Württemberg)
Studienrat or Akademischer Rat/Oberrat/Direktor auf Lebenszeit (A13, A14, A15)
Außerplanmäßiger Professor – conferred, in some German states, to a Privatdozent who has been in service for several years, without formally being appointed as professor.
Greece
Professor Emeritus [Ομότιμος Καθηγητής (male) / Ομότιμος or Ομότιμη Καθηγήτρια (female)]. An honorary title for people at the rank of Professor who have reached the legal age for retirement; If they wish, they have the right, for a limited time after retirement, to continue their research projects.
Professor [Καθηγητής (male) / Καθηγήτρια (female)].[9]
Associate Professor [Αναπληρωτής Καθηγητής (male) / Αναπληρώτρια Καθηγήτρια (female)].
Assistant Professor [Επίκουρος Καθηγητής (male) / Επίκουρος or Επίκουρη Καθηγήτρια (female)].
Laboratory Teaching Staff member [μέλος Εργαστηριακού Διδακτικού Προσωπικού (Ε.ΔΙ.Π.)]. Holders of a doctoral degree (Ph.D). that are members of this rank can independently teach courses, same as the Teaching Research Staff [Διδακτικό Ερευνητικό Προσωπικο (Δ.Ε.Π.)] (i.e., professors, associate professors, and assistant professors) members do. All members can be instructors in laboratories.
Administrative ranks (Universities and Technical Universities)
Rector (Πρύτανης).
Vice-rector (Αντιπρύτανης).
Secretary General [Γενικός Γραμματέας (male) / Γενική Γραμματέας (female)].
Dean (Κοσμήτορας)
Deputy Dean [Αναπληρωτής Κοσμήτορας (male) / Αναπληρώτρια Κοσμήτορας (female)].
Chairman of the Department (Πρόεδρος Τμήματος).
Deputy Chairman of the Department (Αντιπρόεδρος Τμήματος).
Director of the Section [Διευθυντής Τομέα (male) / Διευθύντρια Τομέα (female)].
The holders of administrative ranks must be Professors or Associate Professors. The only exception is Secretary General, who is not a faculty member.
Secretary General [Γενικός Γραμματέας (male) / Γενική Γραμματέας (female)].
Director of the School (Διευθυντής Σχολής (male) / Διεθύντρια Σχολής (female)).
Supervisor of the Department [Προϊστάμενος Τμήματος (male) / Προϊσταμένη Τμήματος (female)].
Director of the Section [Διευθυντής Τομέα (male) / Διευθύντρια Τομέα (female)].
The holders of administrative ranks must be Professors or Associate Professors.
Defunct Academic Staff Ranks
Adjunct Assistant Professor [Εντεταλμένος Επίκουρος Καθηγητής (male) / Εντεταλμένη Επίκουρος Καθηγήτρια]. A temporary employee with a short-term contract, usually for one term (semester), usually holder of a doctoral degree (Ph.D). as described in the Greek Presidential Decree 407/1980 published in the Government Gazette 112/A/9-5-1980. Adjunct Assistant Professors are sometimes called simply as "407" or "P.D. 407", after the number of the Decree.
Lecturer (1982‒2011) [defunct; in universities and technical universities: Λέκτορας (both male and female) / in technological educational institutes: Καθηγητής Εφαρμογών (male) / Καθηγήτρια Εφαρμογών (female)] it had founded by the law 1268/1982 Government Gazette 87/A/16-7-1982 and it was abolished, defunct, by the law 4009/2011 Government Gazette 195/A/6-9-2011.[9][10][11][12]
Teaching Assistant was abolished in 1982, but people holding it remain teaching assistants until retirement.
In the past, Hong Kong followed the British system (4 levels). In recent years it is moving towards the North American counterpart, with the titles renamed to their corresponding equivalence (professor (professor), associate professor (professor/reader), and assistant professor (senior-)lecturer)). Hong Kong's universities usually differ between professorial grades (end- or mid-career research and teaching positions) and lecturers (entry or mid-career positions - in the UK called either teaching fellows or lecturers, and "Mittelbau" in German-speaking countries).[13] Depending on institutions, the title of "professor" is assumed by chair professors and professors, or assistant professors and above.
Academic ranks
Chair professor
Emeritus professor
Professor
Associate professor
Assistant professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Assistant Lecturer
Research assistant professor
Post-doctoral fellow
Adjunct (associate/assistant) professor
Honorary (associate/assistant) professor
Professional consultant or teaching consultant/fellow
Research associate
Research assistant and teaching assistant (or tutor, instructor, demonstrator)
Professzor/egyetemi tanár (university professor/full professor)
főiskolai tanár (college professor)
Docens (associate professor)
Adjunktus (assistant professor)
Tanársegéd (assistant lecturer)
Iceland
In Icelandic universities, particularly at the University of Iceland, prófessor is the most senior ranking teaching position. Below prófessor is dósent, then lektor. This three step hierarchy is akin to the US-scale, of full-, associate- and assistant-professors. Until the early 1990s no upward mobility was available in the Icelandic system. Most university teachers were hired as "prófessor." A "dósent" or a "lektor" wishing to ascend to a higher rank had to apply for a new position when it became available. Currently (since the 1990s) much more university teachers are hired as junior rank "lektor" and are promoted to "dósent" and "prófessor" if their work proves worthy of it.
Research and teaching career pathway
Prófessor (Professor), from Latin professor
Dósent (Associate Professor), from Latin docens, genetive docentis (participle of doceo).
Regular Academic ranks (Hierarchy from top): Academic institutions in India have the mandate of teaching, training and research. This also includes research universities.
Professor
Associate Professor
Assistant Professor
In addition to these, there are government sponsored fellowships awarded to able candidates for a 5-year contract period during which they are hosted by an academic or research organisation. Their primary function is to carry out high quality original research. They may become a regular faculty as an assistant professor or associate professor during this period subject to their performance.
Assistant Professor (on contract) / Ad hoc faculty – They are primarily involved in teaching for a limited contract period typically 6 months – 1 year.
Research ranks (Hierarchy from top): Research institutions such as national labs have a different kind of hierarchy and are primarily concerned with basic and applied research. They guide Ph.D. students in their research thesis but do not grant degrees. In most cases the Ph.D. candidates are registered with another university which grants the degree. Awarding of degree is subjected to meeting the same criteria as Ph.D. guided by university professors.
Scientist H
Scientist G
Scientist F
Scientist E (in some cases EII)
Scientist D (in some cases EI)
Scientist C
Scientist B
Non-faculty ranks
Research associate (postdoctoral fellows/inspire faculty)
Senior research fellow (Ph.D. students after completing two years of course work and research)
Junior research fellow (Newly joined Ph.D. candidates)
According to the Joint Regulations of the Ministry of Education And Culture And Head of National Civil Service Agency No 4/VIII/PB/2014; No 24 Year 2014 and the Regulation of Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform No. 46 Year 2013 and No. 17 Year 2013 Article 6; and the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education decree No. 164/ M/ KPT/ 2019,[14] the academic ranks (Jabatan Fungsional) for lecturer (university-based) and researcher (non-university) are
Holders of PhD degrees can be (in ascending order):
Lecturer (مدرس)
Assistant professor (أستاذ مساعد)
Professor (أستاذ)
ُExperienced professor (أستاذ متمرس)
Note: Holders of PhD degrees are automatically promoted to lecturer if they were assistant lecturers before they received their PhD.
استاذ equivalent to professor.
استاذ مساعد equivalent to associate professor.
مدرس equivalent to assistant professor in American Universities (with PhD) or with researches.
مدرس مساعد Assistant lecturer (without PhD).
Ireland
Lecturer (Below the Bar): Abbreviated LBB
Lecturer (Above the Bar): Abbreviated LAB
Senior Lecturer
Associate Professor [in practice often referred to as "Professor")
Professor
A number of universities in Ireland have re-named their academic ranks, more in line with the US System, but the state salary scales still reflect these ranks.
Professore Ordinario, or Professore di I fascia. A tenured, full professor position.
Professore Associato, or Professore di II fascia. A tenured, associate professor position.
Professore Aggregato. A 'ricercatore confermato' who is in charge of teaching university classes.
Ricercatore confermato. A tenured position as researcher or assistant professor.
Non-tenured positions (non confermato):
Professore Straordinario, also Professore di I fascia. A three-year full professor appointment leading to tenure.
Professore Associato non confermato, also Professore di II fascia. A three-year associate professor appointment leading to tenure at associate level.
Ricercatore non confermato. A three-year position at assistant professor/researcher/lecturer level.
Ricercatore a tempo determinato di tipo B. A three-year position at assistant professor/researcher/lecturer level, leading to the Professore Associato position.
Ricercatore a tempo determinato di tipo A. A three-year position (one possible two-year renewal) at assistant professor/researcher/lecturer level.
Assegnista di Ricerca. A research fellow with a fixed-term appointment.
Honorary titles as Professore Emerito and Professore Onorario also exist and are typically appointed to illustrious academics after retirement.
In Italian universities the role of "Professore a contratto" (literally "Contract Professor") is paid at the end of the academic year nearly €3000 for the entire academic year, without salary during the academic year.[15] In 2020 there are 23 thousand Associate Professors and 28 thousand "Professori a contratto" in Italy.[16] Associate Professors have a starting (net) salary of around 33,000 euros per year (about 56000 gross), Full Professors have a starting salary of 40,000 euros per year (about 70000 gross), and Contract Professors of around 3,000 euros per year.[17]
Jamaica
Professor Emeritus
Professor
Senior Lecturer (Tenured)
Lecturer (Tenured/Tenure track)
Assistant Lecturer
Instructor
Tutor
Graduate/Research Assistant
Japan
In the past few decades, Japan has taken steps to make its academic rankings similar to that of the United States. The ranking system is as follows:
Unlike the other ranks, the kōshi title has no official criteria and thus no standardized English translation. Historically many Japanese associate professors had only master's degrees, but this is no longer the case for younger generations of academics, who in such cases are now limited to the rank of kōshi. There were previously other ranks similar to associate professor and postdoctoral researcher called jokyōju (助教授) and joshu (助手) respectively, but these positions have been eliminated.
The Japanese system includes non-tenured, term-limited positions at all ranks, including professor. These are referred to as ninki tsuki (任期付き) positions and include tokunin (特任) in the official title when contracts are awarded on a rolling, one-year basis. Limited tenure track positions have recently been introduced.[18]
Granting of tenure and promotion to associate professor are not linked; one may be tenured yet remain an assistant professor or promoted to associate professor before being awarded tenure. Because the number of professor and associate professor position is nearly fixed, direct promotion usually requires a higher-level post to be vacated.
Dekāns (male), Dekāne (female) (dean), head of a faculty (human sciences, natural sciences etc.)
Nodaļas vadītājs (male) Nodaļas vadītāja (female) (department manager), head of a department (computer science, mathematics etc.)
Academic positions:
Profesors (male) Profesore (female) Professor
Asociētais profesors (male) Asociētā profesore (female) associate professor
Docents (male), Docente (female) (assistant professor), usually almost the same teaching/research/administration division as professor, Doctoral Degree required
Lektors (male), Lektore (female) Lecturer. Requires MA degree
Asistents (male), Asistente (female) research or teaching assistant
Lebanon
Academic positions at the Lebanese American University:
In general for most public universities in Malaysia:
Professor
Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Malta
Professor
Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Assistant Lecturer
Mexico
The ranking system in most Mexican public universities is as follows
Profesor Asociado A (early assistant professor)
Profesor Asociado B (assistant professor)
Profesor Asociado C (early associate professor)
Profesor Titular A (associate professor)
Profesor Titular B (full professor)
Profesor Titular C (senior full professor)
Profesor Emerito (equivalent to distinguished professor, not to be confused with emeritus professor)
Usually Mexican academics are also fellows of the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI) that has four levels (candidate, I, II and III) that more or less correlate (but are not equivalent) to the Asociado and Titular A, B, and C professorships. The rank as professor is determined by the individual's institution while the SNI level is determined by an independent committee that evaluates the researchers nationwide.
Many universities and research institutions make a distinction between "Profesores" -Professors- and "Investigadores" -Researchers- (Asociado A, B, C, Titular A, B, C), the main difference is that "Profesores" have a higher load of teaching, while "Investigadores" have a higher load of research, but normally all of them take part in both activities and are considered equivalent.
Research rankings are awarded by the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores which depends on the national research council (Conacyt):
SNI emeritus researcher (not necessarily higher rank but lifetime, requires 15 continuous years as SNI III)
SNI III researcher (about 7% of the researchers in SNI)
SNI II researcher (about 16% of the researchers in SNI)
SNI I researcher (about 59% of researchers in SNI)
SNI candidate researcher (C) (about 18% of researchers in SNI)
All titles, both professors and researchers, can be given in a:
Full-time, or
Part-time basis
Administrative academic positions:
Rector or Presidente (Chancellor, Chief Executive Officer)
The hiring of academic positions in public universities throughout Pakistan is managed by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, the requirement for all positions vary with respect to the field of studies e.g. Engineering, IT, Medical, Law, and Arts and Design.
There are four faculty ranks: lecturer, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor.
In engineering public universities, a lecturer requires an M.Sc. or B.Sc. degree and high academic standing in the field (e.g. gold medalist, among top 15 students of graduating class).
An assistant professor position requires a Ph.D. in relevant field with no experience.
An associate professorship can be conducted in the fourth year of employment, although, it is becoming more common for promotion and tenure to be awarded in the sixth year of employment. The review requires a certain number 5/8/10 research publications (with at least 1/2/4[jargon] publications in the last 5 years) by the calendar years 2007/2008/2012 respectively, in HEC/PEC recognized journals.
A professor requires ten years post-PhD teaching/research experience in an HEC recognized university or a post-graduate institution or professional experience in the relevant field in a national or international organization. It requires a minimum of 8/12/15 research publications (with at least 2/3/5 publications in the last 5 years) by the calendar years 2007/2008/2012 respectively, in HEC/PEC recognized journals
Professor Emeritus
Meritorious Professor/ Distinguished National Professor
Professor
Associate professor
Assistant professor
Lecturer
Lab Engineer
Research Associate
Peru
After some recent reforms in the University Law (Minedu, 2014),[20] the Peruvian universities (publics and privates) consider these ranks:
Extraordinary Professors: Principally, this is a category of recognition for his contribution as professor or researcher when he retires or as a professional when he has built a great contribution to society throughout his career. To have 10% as maximum of these professors in any university (public or private) is mandatory.
Emeritus professor (Profesor Emérito) - For this recognition, the candidate should be faculty member (former ordinary professor in retiring process).
Honorary professor (Profesor Honorario) - For this recognition, the candidate is not related to a faculty member. For instance, in this category is the Doctor Honoris Causa.
Research Professors: Principally, full-time research position with few teaching responsibilities. Research professorships are almost always funded by grants or fellowships apart from the regular university budget. He is designated because of its academic excellence. He has a special bonus of fifty percent (50%) of its total payments. The competent authority of each university evaluates every two years, the production of the ordinary professors, for their permanence as a researcher.
Ordinary Professors: Often full-time (with exclusivity) professors with research competences. Principal faculty. To have 25% as minimum of these professors in any university (public or private) is mandatory.
Full professor (Profesor Principal) - PhD and MSc required, and former Associate professor or 15 years of experience (minimum) as researcher in the field to apply.
Associate professor (Profesor Asociado) - PhD (postgraduate level) and MSc required, and former Assistant professor or 10 years of experience (minimum) as researcher in the field to apply.
Assistant professor (Profesor Auxiliar) - PhD (postgraduate level) and MSc required, and 5 years of experience (minimum) as researcher in the field to apply.
Lecturer (Hired Professors): Often part-time (with non-exclusivity) professors. Complementary faculty. Generally, their primary employer is not the university with which they have the status. Principally, this kind of professor come from practitioner market and not develop research activities. MSc required.
In addition, the universities developed prior ranks, as junior temporary rank, to get experience and training (with strong motivation to be ordinary professor):
Instructor (Instructor, Jefe de Práctica) - MSc required in Postgraduate level and BSc required in Undergraduate level.
Teaching/Research Assistant (Asistente Académico/Investigador) - MSc required in Postgraduate level and BSc required in Undergraduate level.
Philippines
Professor Emeritus
Professor
Associate Professor (doctorate is typically required)
Assistant Professor (master's degree required; typically this is also the entry-level rank for PhD holders)
Instructor (master's degree required)
Assistant Instructor
Lecturer (other Universities/Colleges)
Guest Lecturer (other Universities/Colleges)
Administrative ranks (UP System;National)
Chancellor/University President
Vice Chancellor/Vice President for Planning and Development
Vice Chancellor/Vice President for Research and Extension
Vice Chancellor/Vice President for Academic Affairs
Vice Chancellor/Vice President for Finance and Management
University Registrar
Dean
Assistant Dean/Associate Dean
Department Chairman/Program Chairman
Faculty Members and Staff
Other professors
Professor-researcher
Researcher
Professor Emeritus
Ad honorem professor
Tenure
Due to Philippine labor laws regarding permanency, a faculty member who has not received tenure within three years of initial hire cannot continue as a full-time hire at the same university.
(pl 'adiunkt') – assistant professor (requires PhD)
(pl 'docent') – senior lecturer (requires PhD or habilitation), (a new position, since 2007 optional and only in some universities, does not involve any research duties and is meant mainly for teaching). Until 1987 a position between associate professor and university professor.
(pl 'adiunktz habilitacją) – associate professor (requires habilitation)
(pl 'profesor uczelni') – university professor (requires at least PhD and significant research or artistic achievements; awarded by university president)
(pl 'profesor') – full professor (requires the professor title conferred by the President of the Republic of Poland, which is an academic title, not an academic position), sometimes called "professor ordinarius"
and also for a special purpose:
(pl 'profesor wizytujący') – visiting professor
(pl 'profesor emerytowany') – professor emeritus
Teaching staff:
(pl 'instruktor') – instructor (sport)
(pl 'lektor') – instructor, foreign language teacher
(pl 'wykładowca') – lecturer
(pl 'starszy wykładowca') – senior lecturer (please note the same term is used for both "docent" and "starszy wykładowca"
(pl 'profesor uczelni') - university professor (requires at least PhD and significant teaching achievements; awarded by university president)
Elected or nominated posts
Rector (Rektor) – the principal head of the university (one per university); usually assisted by several deputy rectors (pl prorektor)
Dean (Dziekan); the principal head of the faculty (one per faculty), usually assisted by several deputy deans (pl prodziekan);
Head (Kierownik) – the head of the institute/department (one per organizational unit)
Professor Catedrático or Professor Coordenador Principal (full professor) – PhD and Agregação (habilitation) required
Professor Associado com Agregação or Professor Coordenador com Agregação (associate professor with Agregação) – PhD and Agregação (habilitation) required
Professor Associado or Professor Coordenador (associate professor) – PhD required
Professor Auxiliar com Agregação (assistant professor) – PhD and Agregação (habilitation) required
Professor Auxiliar or Professor Adjunto (assistant professor) – PhD required.
Extinct ranks:
Assistente (teaching assistant) - without a PhD
Assistente estagiário (junior teaching assistant) - without a PhD or a master's degree
Romania
Administrative ranks
Rector (Rector): one per university
Prorector (Vice-rector): one or more per university
Decan (Dean): one per college
Prodecan (Vice-dean): one or more per college
Director de departament (Head of department): one per department
Șef de disciplină (Head of a subject): one for each subject
Research-and-teaching staff (higher rank)
Profesor universitar (Professor): holding a doctorate degree international-impact research activity
Conferențiar universitar (Associate professor/ Senior Lecturer/ Reader): holding a doctorate degree and national-impact research activity
Lector universitar or Șef de lucrări (Assistant Professor/ Associate Professor/ Lecturer): holding a doctorate degree and local-impact research activity
Asistent universitar (Assistant Professor/ Assistant Lecturer): holding a doctorate degree (or in case of a limited time contract they can be in the process of getting a doctorate degree)
Special
Profesor invitat (Visiting professor)
Profesor emerit or Profesor consultant (Emeritus professor)
In Russia, otherwise than in the most other countries, synonimization of the terms “academic/scientific rank” and “position in academia” is not admissible, except in informal conversations. Officially, the “scientific rank” in Russia is a title which is conferred by the Higher attestation commission to the scientist after several years of a successful work in the professor (or deemed equivalent) or docent (or deemed equivalent) position. Similar traditions existed in the USSR.
Rwanda
Academic ranks
Full Professor
Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer (PhD)
Assistant Lecturer (Msc)
Tutorial assistant (Cum Laude undergraduate assisting in teaching and research)
Singapore universities adopt a hybrid of US and British academic ranks. Faculty members on the tenure track are appointed for sustained excellence in both teaching and research. Assistant professors are appointed on term contracts, while associate professors and professors may be appointed either with tenure or on term contract. Faculty members on the educator track engage in high-quality educational activities. They are oriented towards teaching excellence, student learning, and pedagogical research and innovation. Appointments in this track include teaching assistants, instructors, lecturers, senior lecturers and associate professors (educator track). They are on term contracts which are usually of 1–3 years in the first instance. Research track faculty members focus on conducting fundamental research of high international quality. Appointments on this track include research assistants, research fellows, senior research fellows, associate professor (research) and professor (research). They are on term contracts of 1–3 years in the first instance. Practice track faculty members are scholar-practitioners with professional skills and expertise in industry to complement the teaching and research enterprise of the university. They also contribute significantly to the outreach activities of the school. Appointments are to associate professor (practice) and professor (practice). They are on term contracts of 1–3 years in the first instance.[21]
Tenure track: assistant professor; associate professor; professor
Profesor (professor), both degree (written prof. before name) and position. Professors are appointed by the president after a successful accomplishment of the process of awarding a professorship. One of the requirements is an already accomplished docent degree.
Docent (associate professor), both degree (written doc. before name) and position. The degree is awarded by the rector after a certain number of years of teaching and after a successful accomplishment of habilitácia (a process concluded by a defense of a reviewed research manuscript and a public lecture).
Odborný asistent (lecturer / researcher), this title covers positions from lecturers to researchers. Requirements for lecturers / researchers vary, usually a Ph.D. / Th.D. is required
Asistent (assistant lecturer), at least Master degree is required
Special
Hosťujúci profesor (hosting professor), significant expert with whom a dean with the approval of the scientific council of a faculty concluded employment at the position of professor
Hosťujúci docent (hosting associate professor), significant expert with whom a dean with the approval of the scientific council of a faculty concluded employment at the position of associate professor
Mimoriadny profesor (adjunct professor; sometimes also translated as associate professor, but it is not same position as docent), associate professor temporarily appointed to the position of professor at a faculty while being an expectant to professor degree (written mimoriadny profesor after name)
Prorektor (vice-rector), typically three to five people are vice-rectors; the position is further specified by indicating domain a vice-rector is responsible for (e. g. study-related issues, research, public relationships, international relationships, development, information technology)
Kvestor (registrar, bursar), senior professional financial administrator of the university
Prodekan (vice-dean); the position is further specified by indicating domain a vice-den is responsible for (e. g. admissions, study-related issues, research, public relationships, international relationships, information technology)
Vedúci katedry (departmental chairman), head of a katedra (department) – sub-unit at a faculty
Zástupca vedúceho katedry (deputy departmental chairman), deputizes department chairman if necessary
Honorary ranks
Emeritný profesor (professor emeritus), may be awarded by the rector on the proposal of the scientific council of the university for significant contributions in the field of science, art or education to professor older than 65 years who is no longer employment at the university, but is still active in research and teaching
Doctor honoris causa (honorary doctor for the sake of the honor), honorary doctorate of the university or a faculty awarded for special merit (written Dr.h.c. before name)
Slovenia
Asistent – assistant (Must hold at least Master (after Bologna process) or Honours degree (university diploma awarded before the Bologna process) with excellent grades, pursuing a postgraduate studies (either Doctorate / PhD studies or pre-Bologna process Magister studies). Relevant working experience or publications could be required as well)
Asistent-raziskovalec – research assistant (Must hold at least Master (after Bologna process) or Honours degree (university diploma awarded before the Bologna process) with excellent grades, pursuing a postgraduate studies (either Doctorate / PhD studies or pre-Bologna process Magister studies). Relevant working experience or publications could be required as well)
Lektor (usually a native speaker of a taught language)
Docent – assistant professor (Must hold Doctorate / PhD. Relevant working experience or publications could be required as well.)
Izredni profesor – associate professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate and have experience of minimum of four years as a Docent)
Redni profesor – full professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate and have experience of minimum of four years as a docent/associate professor?)
Administrative ranks
Rektor – rector / chancellor / head of university
Prorektor – prorector / vice-chancellor / head of university assistant
Dekan – dean / head of faculty, academy or school at the university
Prodekan – vice-dean / head of faculty, academy or school at the university
Predstojnik oddelka – head of department; several per faculty, academy or school at the university
Predstojnik katedre – head of cathedra/chair; several per faculty or per department
Honorary ranks
Zaslužni profesor – distinguished professor, a title bestowed to professors for their extraordinary achievements
Assistant Professor / Senior Lecturer / Profesor Contratado Doctor
Lecturer / Profesor Ayudante Doctor
Instructor (Often Part Time) / Profesor Asociado
Sri Lanka
The appointment of professors follows the British system and is governed by the University Grants Commission regulations. A points-based system considers contributions to the research field, national development and institutional development. Several types of professorships exist:
Professor emeritus (on retirement at the age of 65)
Senior professor
Professor
Associate professor
Professor positions are clearly separated from other junior faculty positions such as, in seniority order: senior lecturer (grade I) (usually PhD and 6+ years service), senior lecturer (grade II) (usually a PhD and 2+ years service), lecturer (usually with PhD), lecturer (probationary), Temporary lecturer.
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter/Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin: Scientific Staff (Note: typically synonymous with "Assistent/Assistentin")
Assistent/Assistentin: research assistant (typically a PhD student)
Hilfassistent/Hilfassistentin: Undergraduate research assistant / Undergraduate teaching assistant
French-language universities
Professeur ordinaire (full professor, chairman)
Professeur extraordinaire
Professeur invité
Professeur associé (associate professor literally, yet functions as full professor or reader, non-chairman, tenured)
Professeur assistant (assistant professor literally, yet functions as associate professor, tenure-track)
Chargé de cours (senior lecturer, yet functions as associate professor, tenure-track)
Privat docent (has the habilitation but not professorship, required for tenure-track)
Chargé d'enseignement (lecturer, not tenure-track)
Maître-Assistant (assistant professor or lecturer, non-tenured)
Assistant (lecturer, usually a graduate student)
Moniteur (undergraduate student)
Syria
The academic rankings in the Syrian Arab Republic are very similar to the Egyptian ones; see Academic ranks in Egypt for details.
Taiwan
Professor emeritus (名譽教授)
Professor (教授)
Associate professor (副教授)
Assistant professor (助理教授) (assistant professor and above are mainly for people who hold a PhD degree. Some are promoted to this rank by distinctive industrial performance.)
Lecturer
Adjunct professor
Adjunct associate professor
Adjunct assistant professor (According to the contract work, and less welfare. Usually 1 to 2 years.)
Chargé de cours définitif (associate professor, tenured)
Chargé de cours temporaire (assistant professor, tenure-track)
Chargé de cours invité (visiting assistant professor, non-tenured)
Maître de conférences (associate professor, tenured)
Directeur de recherche (research director, appointed by federal research council FNRS)
Chef de travaux agrégé (senior researcher with teaching aggregation, with Ph.D.)
Maître de Conférences (senior researcher, with Ph.D., appointed by federal research council FNRS)
Chef de travaux (senior researcher, with Ph.D.)
Chercheur qualifié (senior researcher., appointed by federal research council FNRS)
Premier assistant (senior research assistant, with Ph.D.)
Chargé de recherche (researcher, appointed by federal research council FNRS)
Assistant de recherche (research assistant)
Administrative ranks
Recteur (president of university)
Vice-Recteur
Doyen (dean, i.e. head of a faculty, elected)
Président d'institut (director of research institute, elected)
Vice-Doyen (vice-dean, i.e. head of studies in a faculty)
Président de département (department head, elected)
Turkey
Academic ranks
Emeritus Profesör, (Honorary Retired professor)
Ordinaryus Profesör, (At least 5 years professor with a chair, representing a given area. Since 1960, this title is not given.)
Profesör, (Full professor)
Doçent, (Associate professor)
Yardımcı Doçent, (Assistant professor. This title was not given since 2018 and replaced with Doktor Öğretim Üyesi title )
Doktor Öğretim Üyesi, (Assistant Professor Literally: Doctor Teaching Member)
Öğretim Görevlisi Doktor, (Lecturer with doctorate, Literally: Teaching Officer, Doctor introduced after 2018)
Öğretim Görevlisi, (Lecturer, Literally: Teaching Officer )
Okutman, (Instructor, This title not given since 2018 and replaced with Öğretim Görevlisi title)
Doktor Araştırma Görevlisi, (Doctor Research/Teaching Assistant with doctorate, Literally: Doctor Research Officer introduced after 2018)
Araştırma Görevlisi, (Research/Teaching Assistant Literally: Research Officer)
Başasistan Hekim (Head of Assistant Medical Doctors)
Asistan Hekim (Assistant Medical Doctor replaced with Doktor Araştırma Görevlisi after 2018)
Administrative ranks
Rektör, rector or president (professors)
Rektör Yardımcısı, vice-rector or vice-president (doctorate or above, generally associate professors or professors)
Fakülte Dekanı, dean of the faculty (professors)
Enstitü müdürü, Director of the institute (doctorate or above for research institutes, professors for graduate education institutes)
Dekan Yardımcısı, vice-dean or associate dean (doctorate or above, generally associate professors or professors)
Enstitü müdürü, Director of the institute (doctorate or abovr, generally associate professor or above)
Enstitü müdür yardımcısı, Deputy director of the institute (doctorate or above)
Bölüm Başkanı, head of department (doctorate or above, generally associate professors or professors with highest experience)
Yüksekokul Müdürü, head of school (doctorate or above)
Ana Bilim/Sanat Dalı Başkanı, head of chair/ chairman of academic programs (doctorate or above, generally associate professors or professors with highest experience in the area)
Ukraine
Academic ranks
Profesor / Професор (Full professor)
Dotsent / Доцент (Associate professor)
Starshyj doslidnyk (starshyj naukovyj spivrobitnyk) / Старший дослідник (старший науковий співробітник) (Senior researcher, Senior research fellow)
Starshyj vykladach / Старший викладач (Senior lecturer)
Vykladach / Викладач (Lecturer)
Asystent / Асистент (Assistant professor)
Administrative ranks
Rektor / Ректор, rector or president (professors)
Prorektor / Проректор, vice-rector or vice-president (professors)
Dyrektor instytutu / centru / Директор інституту / центру, Director of the institute / centre (assistant professor or above)
Dekan Fakultetu / Декан факультету, dean of the faculty (associate professor or above)
Zastupnyk dekana/dyrektora / Заступник декана/директора, vice-dean or associate dean (associate professor or above) / deputy director of the institute (assistant professor or above)
Zaviduvach kafedry / Завідувач кафедри, head of department (assistant professor or above)
Zaviduvach laboratoriji / Завідувач лабораторії, head of laboratory (assistant professor or above)
Zaviduvach sekciji kafedry / Завідувач секції кафедри, chairman of academic programs (assistant professor or above)
^The title of "Oberassistent" is comparable to the German Akademischer Rat [de], a postdoctoral position that today has mostly been replaced by the position of Juniorprofessur [de]. It is typically non-tenured and does not imply faculty rank (i.e., one would not participate in faculty meetings of professors).
^ ab"Νόμος 4009/2011 ΦΕΚ 195, Τεύχος A, 6 Σεπτεμβρίου 2011" [Law 4009/2011 Government Gazette 195/A/6-9-2011] (PDF) (in Greek). Archived(PDF) from the original on 2021-11-24 – via University of the Aegean. Law 4009/2011 Government Gazette 195/A/6-9-2011, Page 4266(12), Academic Staff of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Greece, Part I, Article 16, HEIs Professors are three ranks: Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor
^Zois, Dimitris. "Οι Λέκτορες μετά τον νόμο 4009/2011" [The university lecturer academic rank after the law 4009/2011 Government Gazette 195/A/6-9-2011]. posdep.gr (in Greek). Panhellenic Federation of Associations of the Teaching and Research Staff (Πανελλήνια Ομοσπονδία Συλλόγων Διδακτικού και Ερευνητικού Προσωπικού, Π.Ο.Σ.Δ.Ε.Π.). Archived from the original on 2021-05-09.
^USTAT Miur Italian Ministry for Education, University and Research (Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’ Università e della Ricerca - MIUR) official website. "Esplora i dati". USTAT. Retrieved 2022-01-09.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
