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The following is a list of usurpers in the Roman Empire. For an overview of the problem and consequences of usurpation, see Roman usurpers. In the Eastern Roman Empire (395–1453), rebellion and usurpation were so notoriously frequent (in the vision of the medieval West, where usurpation was rare) that the modern term "byzantine" became a byword for political intrigue and conspiracy. For usurpation in the Eastern Roman Empire, see List of Byzantine usurpers.

Usurpers who became legitimate emperors

The following individuals began as usurpers, but became the legitimate emperor either by establishing uncontested control of the empire or by confirmation of their position by the Roman Senate or by the legitimate emperor.

First Imperial civil war

Galba (68–69)
Otho (69)
Vitellius (69)
Vespasian (69–79)

Second Imperial civil war

Septimius Severus (193–211)
Macrinus (217–218) in Syria, former prefect of the Praetorian Guard
Elagabalus (218–222)

Crisis of the Third Century

Maximinus Thrax (235–238) in the Rhine, former centurion
Gordian I and Gordian II (238) in Africa, suicide after defeat in battle
Philip the Arab (244–249) in the East, former prefect of the Praetorian Guard
Decius (249–251)
Trebonianus Gallus (251–253)
Aemilianus (253)
Valerian (253–260)
Saloninus (260)
Claudius Gothicus (268–270)
Quintillus (270)
Aurelian (270–275)
Tacitus (275–276)
Florianus (276)
Probus (276–282)
Carus (282–283)
Diocletian (284–305)

Tetrarchy and Later Empire

Constantine the Great^{[citation needed]} (306–337)
Maxentius (306–312)
Maximinus Daza (310–313)
Magnentius (350–353) (only recognized by Senate)
Julian (360–363)
Jovian (363–364)
Valentinian I (364–375)
Valentinian II (375–392)
Magnus Maximus (383–388)
Eugenius (392–394) (only recognized by Senate)

Western Empire

Most Western emperors were accepted by the Roman Senate (possibly except for Constans II) but almost never recognized as colleagues by the Eastern Emperors.^[1] Three of them, (Constantine III, Priscus Attalus, and Constans II), reigned alongside the legitimate Emperor of the West Honorius, who accepted Constantine III as his co-emperor in 409. Upon his recognition, Constantine III appointed his son Constans II co-emperor.

Constantine III (407–411)
Priscus Attalus (409–410)
Joannes (423–425)
Petronius Maximus (455)
Avitus (455–456) (unclear if recognized by the Emperor of the East)^[2]
Majorian (457–461)
Libius Severus (461–465)
Olybrius (472)
Glycerius (473–474)
Romulus Augustulus (475–476)

Usurpers not considered legitimate emperors

The following individuals proclaimed themselves emperor (or were proclaimed or appointed as emperor), but are not considered as legitimate emperors because they did not oust the ruling emperor, or did not establish control of the whole empire, or were not accepted by the senate or other imperial colleagues.

They are listed here under the emperor whose rule they attempted to usurp. The noted date is the attempted year of usurpation.

Claudius: 41–54

Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus (42), the imperial legate of Dalmatia. Considered a possible successor to Caligula, he committed suicide on the island of Issa after his troops abandoned him.

Galba: 68–69

Nymphidius Sabinus (68), Nero's Praetorian Prefect, declared himself emperor after Nero's suicide, claiming he was the illegitimate son of Caligula. Killed by the Praetorian Guard as Galba approached Rome.

Titus: 79–81

Terentius Maximus, in Asia, took refuge with Artabanus, a Parthian leader, resembled Nero^{[year needed]}

Domitian: 81–96

Lucius Antonius Saturninus (89), in Germania Superior, governor of Germania Superior, could not bring in Germanic allies because the Rhine thawed, put down by Lucius Appius Maximus Norbanus.

Marcus Aurelius: 161–180

Avidius Cassius (175), in Egypt and Syria, governor of Syria, declared himself emperor upon the rumor that Marcus Aurelius had died, continued his revolt even upon learning Marcus Aurelius was alive.

Septimius Severus: 193–211

Pescennius Niger (193–194), in Egypt, Asia and Syria, governor of Syria, proclaimed himself emperor after the death of Pertinax, defeated in battle and killed while fleeing to Parthia.
Clodius Albinus (196–197), in Britain and Gaul, governor of Britain, originally Septimius Severus's ally until Pescennius Niger was killed, killed at the battle of Lugdunum.

Elagabalus: 218–222

Triccianus (c. 218)
Gellius Maximus (219), in Syria, executed, originally an officer of Legio IV Scythica
Verus (late 219), in Syria, executed, commander of Legio III Gallica
Uranius (c. 221), questioned existence and date; sources place him in 253
Seleucus (after 221). He could be Julius Antonius Seleucus, in Moesia, or M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus, consul for 221

Alexander Severus: 222–235

Sallustius (c. 227), in Rome, raised to Caesar by Alexander, executed for attempted murder, prefect of the Praetorian Guard
Taurinus (S. date unclear), in the East, committed suicide in the Euphrates after being hailed Augustus
Ovinius Camillus, alleged usurper mentioned only in the Historia Augusta, now thought to have been fictitious

Maximinus Thrax: 235–238

Magnus (235), ordered some soldiers of Maximinus to destroy the bridge that allowed the Emperor to cross back the Rhine, a former consul
Quartinus (235), in the East, supported by soldiers loyal to former emperor Alexander Severus

Gordian III: 238–244

Sabinianus (240), in Africa, governor of the province

Philip the Arab: 244–249

Iotapianus (kS.248), in the East
Pacatian (kS.248), in the Danube frontier, killed by soldiers
Silbannacus in the Rhine, uncertain date

Decius: 249–251

Licinianus (250) in Rome, executed
Priscus (251–k?252) in Thrace
Valens Senior in Illyria, great-uncle of Valens Thessalonicus

Gallienus: 253–268

Ingenuus (260) in Pannonia, committed suicide, former governor
Macrianus Major, Macrianus Minor and Quietus (September 260 – Autumn 261) in the East, all killed by their own soldiers in different occasions
Regalianus (260) in Pannonia, ruled with his wife
Balista (also: Ballista) (Autumn e.261) in the East, former Praetorian prefect, associated with the former
Piso (kS.261) in Achaea, questioned existence
Valens (k.261) in Achaea, killed by Macrinus, former governor
Memor (e.261) in Egypt
Mussius Aemilianus (261 – Spring e.262) in Egypt
The emperors of the Gallic Empire
The emperors of the Palmyrene Empire
The fictitious usurpers:
- Celsus
- Saturninus — Possibly the villain in Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus
- Trebellianus

Claudius II: 268–270

Censorinus (269–kS.270), almost certainly non-existent: "attested" only by the Augustan History (Trig. Tyr. 33) with no literary, epigraphical, numismatic support of any kind.

Aurelian: 270–275

Sponsianus in Dacia, contested numismatic evidence only
Domitianus (270–271) most probably in Southern Gaul. He was probably encouraged by Aurelian's difficulties in dealing with an Alamannic incursion into Italy that occurred early in his reign. His bid for power could have been suppressed by Aurelian's Praetorian Prefect, Placidianus who was in the Rhone valley at the time or by Tetricus, the Gallic Emperor.
Felicissimus (k.271) in Rome, a civil servant involved in corruption
Septimius (kS.271) in Dalmatia
Urbanus (271), questioned existence
Firmus (k.273) in Egypt, questioned existence

Constantine I: 309–337

Calocaerus (e.333/334)

Constantius II: 337–361

Nepotianus (350)
Carausius II (354–358), questioned existence
Silvanus (355)

Valens: 364–378

Procopius (366)
Marcellus (366)
Theodorus (372)

Valentinian I: 364–375

Firmus (372–375)

Honorius: 395–423

Marcus: (406–407)
Gratian: (407)
Maximus of Hispania: (409–411, 420–421)
Priscus Attalus: (414-415)
Jovinus: (411–413)
Sebastianus: (412–413)
Heraclianus: (412–413)

Valentinian III: 423–455

Bonifacius: (427)

Libius Severus: 461-465

Aegidius (461-465)
Marcellinus (461-467)

Anthemius: 467–472

Arvandus: (468)
Romanus: (470)

Unsuccessful regional usurpers after the fall of Rome (476)

Burdunellus (e.496), in the Ebro valley
Peter (e.506), in the Ebro valley

References

^ Philip Grierson, Mark A. S. Blackburn (1986). Medieval European Coinage: With a Catalogue of the Coins in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-521-26009-1.
^ "Avitus". The Imperial Index: The Rulers of the Roman Empire. From Augustus to Constantine XI Palaeologus. Retrieved 8 December 2021.