Killifish

A bluefin notho killifish, Nothobranchius rachovii, from East Africa

A killifish is any of various oviparous (egg-laying) cyprinodontiform fish,[1] including families Aplocheilidae, Cyprinodontidae, Fundulidae, Nothobranchiidae, Profundulidae, Aphaniidae and Valenciidae. All together, there are 1,270 species of killifish, the biggest family being Rivulidae, containing more than 320 species.[2] As an adaptation to living in ephemeral waters, the eggs of most killifish can survive periods of partial dehydration. Many of the species rely on such a diapause, since the eggs would not survive more than a few weeks if entirely submerged in water. The adults of some species, such as Kryptolebias marmoratus, can additionally survive out of the water for several weeks.[3] Most killifish are small, measuring from 2.5 to 5 centimetres (1 to 2 in), with the largest species growing to just under 15 centimetres (6 in).

The word killifish is of uncertain origin, but is likely to have come from the Dutch kil for a kill (small stream).[4] Although killifish is sometimes used as an English equivalent to the taxonomical term Cyprinodontidae, some species belonging to that family have their own common names, such as the pupfish and the mummichog.

Range and habitat

Devils Hole pupfish, Cyprinodon diabolis, from Death Valley National Park

Killifish are found mainly in fresh or brackish waters in the Americas, as far south as Argentina and as far north as southern Ontario and even Newfoundland and Labrador.[5] There are also species in southern Europe, in much of Africa as far south as KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, in the Middle East and Asia (as far east as Vietnam), and on several Indian Ocean islands.

The majority of killifish are found in permanent streams, rivers, and lakes, and live between two and three years. Such killifish are common in the Americas (Cyprinodon, Fundulus and Rivulus) as well as in Africa and Asia (including Aphyosemion, Aplocheilus, Epiplatys, Fundulopanchax and Lacustricola) and southern Europe (Aphanius). Some of these habitats can be rather extreme; the only natural habitat of the Devils Hole pupfish (Cyprinodon diabolis) is Devils Hole: a cavern at least 91 metres (299 ft) deep, branching out from a small opening at the surface, approximately 1.8 metres (6 ft) by 5.5 metres (18 ft) wide.

Some specialized forms live in temporary ponds and flood plains, and typically have a much shorter lifespan. Such species, known as "annuals", live no longer than nine months, and are used as models for studies on aging. Examples include the African genus Nothobranchius and South American genera ranging from the cold water Austrolebias of Argentina and Uruguay to the more tropical Gnatholebias, Pterolebias,[6] Simpsonichthys and Terranatos.

Territorial behaviour

Fundulus auroguttatus, a non-annual North American killifish similar to Fundulus chrysotus known as a topminnow

A small number of species will shoal while most are territorial to varying degrees. Populations can be dense and territories can shift quickly, especially for species of the extreme shallows (a few centimetres of water). Many species exist as passive tribes in small streams where dominant males will defend a territory while allowing females and immature males to pass through the area. In the aquarium, territorial behaviour is different for every grouping, and will even vary by individuals. In a large enough aquarium, most species can live in groups as long as there are more than three males.

Diet

Killifish feed primarily on aquatic arthropods such as insect (mosquito) larvae, aquatic crustaceans and worms. Some species of Orestias from Lake Titicaca are planktonic filter feeders. Others, such as Cynolebias and Megalebias species and Nothobranchius ocellatus are predatory and feed mainly on other fish. The American Flagfish (Jordanella floridae) feeds heavily on algae and other plant matter as well as aquatic invertebrates. Nothobranchius furzeri needs much food because it grows quickly, so when food supplied is inadequate, bigger fish will eat the smaller fish.[7]

In lifespan research

A male Nothobranchius furzeri GRZ
(from Gonarezhou National Park)

Some strains have a lifespan as short as several months and can thus serve as a model for biogerontological studies.[8][9][10][11][12] The African turquoise killifish (Nothobranchius furzeri) is the shortest-living vertebrate that can be bred in captivity, having a lifespan of between three and nine months.[9][10] Sexual maturation occurs within 3–4 weeks, with fecundity peaking in 8–10 weeks.[13]

Nothobranchius furzeri shows no signs of telomere shortening, reduced telomerase activity, or replicative senescence with age, despite its short lifespan.[14][15] Nonetheless, lipofuscin accumulates in the brain and liver (associated with age-related neurodegeneration), and there is an increased risk of cancer with age.[13] Calorie restriction reduces these age-related disease conditions.[13] Resveratrol has been shown to increase the mean (56%) and maximum life span (59%) of Nothobranchius furzeri,[16][17] but resveratrol has not been shown to have this effect in mammals.[18][19][16]

Transferring the gut microbiota from young killifish into middle-aged killifish significantly extends the lifespans of the middle-aged killifish.[20][21]

Transgenic strains have been made,[22] and precise genome editing was achieved in Nothobranchius furzeri using a draft genome and the CRISPR/Cas9 system.[10] By targeting multiple genes, including telomerase, the killifish can now be used as an attractive vertebrate model organism for aging and diseases (such as Dyskeratosis congenita).[10] Sequencing the whole killifish genome indicated modification to the IGF-1 receptor gene.[23]

As pets

Blue lyretail, Fundulopanchax gardneri, one of the most common West African species of killifish kept in aquariums

Many killifish are lavishly coloured and most species are easy to keep and breed in an aquarium. Specimens can be obtained from specialist societies and associations. Striped panchax (also known as the Golden Wonder killifish) are commonly found in pet shops, but caution must be exercised when considering tank mates, since the mouth of the Striped panchax is as wide as the head, and much smaller fish will be eaten. Flagfish, native to south Florida, is another species of killifish commonly found in pet stores. They are useful in aquariums for algae control. The golden topminnow (Fundulus chrysotus) is also native to the United States and often available at auction, but care must be taken with these fish to stop them from jumping out of the tank. A firm cover and a layer of floating plants is best when keeping these fish.

Behaviour-altering infection

Normally, killifish avoid near-surface water to reduce the danger of being eaten by predators. However, when infected with a type of fluke the fish swim near the surface, and sometimes even swim upside down, exposing their camouflaged bellies. The fluke completes its lifecycle in the digestive tract of birds.[24]

Evolved resistance to extreme levels of toxicity

The large populations of killifish and the genetic diversity of the species have enabled it to evolve and survive in areas where other species have died out, including Superfund sites. Over a few dozen generations of killifish[25][26] in a relatively short period of time (50–60 years), killifish have evolved resistance against levels of dioxins, PCBs, mercury, and other industrial chemicals up to 8,000 times higher than the previously estimated lethal dose. Sequencing the genomes of the adapted individuals showed a common set of mutations among the pollution-tolerant fish, many of which help to deactivate or turn off a molecular pathway responsible for a large part of the cellular damage caused by the chemicals.[27]

Killifish were found to fare relatively well in the wake of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.[28][29]

References

  1. ^ Albert, James S.; Tagliacollo, Victor A.; Dagosta, Fernando (2020-11-02). "Diversification of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 51 (1). Annual Reviews: 27–53. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-011620-031032. ISSN 1543-592X. S2CID 225478064.
  2. ^ List of Nominal Species of Rivulidae (Rivulines)FishBase. Ed. Rainer Froese and Daniel Pauly. May 2007 version. N.p.: FishBase, 2007. Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ "Tropical fish can live for months out of water", Reuters, Wed Nov 14, 2007 9:05pm GMT
  4. ^ van der Sijs, Nicoline (2009). Cookies, Coleslaw and Stoops: The Influence of Dutch on the North American Languages. Amsterdam University Press. p. 198. ISBN 9789089641243.
  5. ^ As of summer 2023, the Suncor Energy Fluvarium in St. John's, Newfoundland notes, that the Newfoundland population of fundulus diaphanous (banded killifish) is listed as species of Special Concern under Canada's Species at Risk Act.
  6. ^ Costa, Wilson J.E.M. (21 October 2005). "The Neotropical annual killifish genus Pterolebias Garman (Teleostei: Cyprinodontiformes: Rivulidae): phylogenetic relationships, descriptive morphology, and taxonomic revision". Zootaxa. 1067 (1): 1–36. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1067.1.1. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  7. ^ "Species File: Nothobranchius furzeri". Killi.co.uk. 2009–2013. Retrieved 2013-02-08.
  8. ^ Terzibasi E, Valenzano DR, Benedetti M, Roncaglia P, Cattaneo A, Domenici L, Cellerino A (2008). "Large differences in aging phenotype between strains of the short-lived annual fish Nothobranchius furzeri". PLoS ONE. 3 (12): e3866. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.3866T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003866. PMC 2585814. PMID 19052641.
  9. ^ a b Valenzano DR, Sharp S, Brunet A (2011). "Transposon-Mediated Transgenesis in the Short-Lived African Killifish Nothobranchius furzeri, a Vertebrate Model for Aging". G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 1 (7): 531–538. doi:10.1534/g3.111.001271. PMC 3276177. PMID 22384364.
  10. ^ a b c d Harel, I.; Benayoun, B. R. N. A.; Machado, B.; Singh, P. P.; Hu, C. K.; Pech, M. F.; Valenzano, D. R.; Zhang, E.; Sharp, S. C.; Artandi, S. E.; Brunet, A (2015). "A Platform for Rapid Exploration of Aging and Diseases in a Naturally Short-Lived Vertebrate". Cell. 160 (5): 1013–26. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.01.038. PMC 4344913. PMID 25684364.
  11. ^ Callaway E (2015). "Short-lived fish may hold clues to human ageing". Nature. 528 (7581): 175. Bibcode:2015Natur.528..175C. doi:10.1038/nature.2015.18945. PMID 26659161.
  12. ^ Cellerino A, Valenzano DR, Reichard M (2016). "From the bush to the bench: the annual Nothobranchius fishes as a new model system in biology". Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 91 (2): 511–533. doi:10.1111/brv.12183. hdl:11384/61025. PMID 25923786. S2CID 3963445.
  13. ^ a b c Kim Y, Nam HG, Valenzano DR (2016). "The short-lived African turquoise killifish: an emerging experimental model for ageing". Disease Models & Mechanisms. 9 (2): 115–129. doi:10.1242/dmm.023226. PMC 4770150. PMID 26839399.
  14. ^ Hartmann N, Reichwald K, Lechel A, Graf M, Kirschner J, Dorn A, Terzibasi E, Wellner J, Platzer M, Rudolph KL, Cellerino A, Englert C (2009). "Telomeres shorten while Tert expression increases during ageing of the short-lived fish Nothobranchius furzeri". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 130 (5): 290–296. doi:10.1016/j.mad.2009.01.003. PMID 19428446. S2CID 10813587.
  15. ^ Graf M, Hartmann N, Reichwald K, Englert C (2013). "Absence of replicative senescence in cultured cells from the short-lived killifish Nothobranchius furzeri". Experimental Gerontology. 48 (1): 17–28. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2012.02.012. PMID 22445733. S2CID 11729069.
  16. ^ a b Baur JA, Sinclair DA (2006). "Therapeutic potential of resveratrol: the in vivo evidence". Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 5 (6): 493–506. doi:10.1038/nrd2060. PMID 16732220. S2CID 36628503.
  17. ^ Valenzano DR, Terzibasi E, Genade T, Cattaneo A, Domenici L, Cellerino A (2006). "Resveratrol prolongs lifespan and retards the onset of age-related markers in a short-lived vertebrate". Current Biology. 16 (3): 296–300. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.12.038. hdl:11384/14713. PMID 16461283. S2CID 1662390.
  18. ^ Bhullar KS, Hubbard BP (2015). "Lifespan and healthspan extension by resveratrol". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease. 1852 (6): 1209–1218. doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.01.012. PMID 25640851.
  19. ^ Strong R, Miller RA, Nadon NL, Harrison DE (2013). "Evaluation of resveratrol, green tea extract, curcumin, oxaloacetic acid, and medium-chain triglyceride oil on life span of genetically heterogeneous mice". The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 68 (1): 6–16. doi:10.1093/gerona/gls070. PMC 3598361. PMID 22451473.
  20. ^ Smith P, Willemsen D, PopkesM (2017). "Regulation of life span by the gut microbiota in the short-lived African turquoise killifish". eLife. 6 (e27014). doi:10.7554/eLife.27014. PMC 5566455. PMID 28826469.
  21. ^ Tibbs TN, Lopez LR, Arthur JC (2019). "The influence of the microbiota on immune development, chronic inflammation, and cancer in the context of aging". Microbial Cell. 6 (8): 324–334. doi:10.15698/mic2019.08.685 (inactive 2024-11-21). PMC 6685047. PMID 31403049.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  22. ^ Valenzano DR, Sharp S, Brunet A (2011). "Transposon-Mediated Transgenesis in the Short-Lived African Killifish Nothobranchius furzeri, a Vertebrate Model for Aging". G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 1 (7): 531–538. doi:10.1534/g3.111.001271. PMC 3276177. PMID 22384364.
  23. ^ Valenzano DR, Benayoun BA, Singh PP, Zhang E, Etter PD, Hu CK, Clément-Ziza M, Willemsen D, Cui R, Harel I, Machado BE, Yee MC, Sharp SC, Bustamante CD, Beyer A, Johnson EA, Brunet A (2015). "The African Turquoise Killifish Genome Provides Insights into Evolution and Genetic Architecture of Lifespan". Cell. 163 (6): 1539–1554. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.008. PMC 4684691. PMID 26638078.
  24. ^ "Mindsuckers - National Geographic Magazine". Archived from the original on 2016-04-26. Retrieved 2016-04-26.
  25. ^ Yan, Wudan (23 April 2020). "Pollution evolution: The little fish that could". Knowable Magazine. Annual Reviews. doi:10.1146/knowable-042220-1. S2CID 219039865. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  26. ^ Cherr, Gary N.; Fairbairn, Elise; Whitehead, Andrew (8 February 2017). "Impacts of Petroleum-Derived Pollutants on Fish Development". Annual Review of Animal Biosciences. 5 (1): 185–203. doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-022516-022928. ISSN 2165-8102. PMID 27959669.
  27. ^ Konkel, Lindsey (8 December 2016). "These Fish Evolved to Live in Extremely Toxic Water". National Geographic. University of California, Davis. Archived from the original on December 10, 2016.
  28. ^ "After Deepwater Horizon spill: Which animals weathered the disaster". www.sciencedaily.com. Rutgers University. March 13, 2017. Retrieved March 15, 2017.
  29. ^ McCann, Michael J; Able, Kenneth W; Christian, Robert R; Fodrie, F Joel; Jensen, Olaf P; Johnson, Jessica J; López-Duarte, Paola C; Martin, Charles W; Olin, Jill A; Polito, Michael J; Roberts, Brian J; Ziegler, Shelby L (April 2017). "Key taxa in food web responses to stressors: the Deepwater Horizon oil spill". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 15 (3): 142–149. doi:10.1002/fee.1474.

Read other articles:

Karpet Azerbaijan

Sulaman sutra, abad ke-17–18. Dalam koleksi Museum Tekstil (Washington, D.C.) Karpet Azerbaijan adalah karpet tradisional yang dibuat di wilayah geografis Azerbaijan. Permadani Azerbaijan adalah tekstil buatan tangan dengan berbagai ukuran, dengan tekstur padat dan permukaan bertumpuk atau tidak bertumpuk, yang polanya merupakan ciri khas banyak daerah pembuatan karpet Azerbaijan. Secara tradisional, karpet digunakan di Azerbaijan untuk menutupi lantai, menghiasi dinding interior, sofa, kur...

 

False door

Architectural pattern in Ancient Egypt A typical false door to an Egyptian tomb. The deceased is shown above the central niche in front of a table of offerings, and inscriptions listing offerings for the deceased are carved along the side panels. Louvre Museum. A false door, or recessed niche,[1] is an artistic representation of a door which does not function like a real door. They can be carved in a wall or painted on it. They are a common architectural element in the tombs of ancien...

 

Foreign relations of Trinidad and Tobago

Politics of Trinidad and Tobago Government President (list) Christine Kangaloo Prime Minister Keith Rowley Parliament Senate President Nigel de Freitas House of Representatives Speaker Bridgid Annisette-George Leader of the Opposition Kamla Persad-Bissessar Judiciary Supreme Court Chief Justice: Ivor Archie Court of Appeal High Court Magistracy Family Court Privy Council committee (UK) Elections Recent elections Presidential: 201320182023 General: 20152020Next Local (Trinidad): 201320162019 ...

Why Is There Air?

1965 live album by Bill CosbyWhy Is There Air?Live album by Bill CosbyReleasedAugust 1965Recorded1965Flamingo HotelLas Vegas, NevadaGenreStand-up comedyLength39:53LabelWarner Bros.ProducerAllan Sherman, Roy SilverBill Cosby chronology I Started Out as a Child(1964) Why Is There Air?(1965) Wonderfulness(1966) Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllMusic[1] Why Is There Air? (1965) is Bill Cosby's third album. It was recorded at the Flamingo Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada. ...

 

Castagneto Po

Castagneto Pocomune Castagneto Po – VedutaLa piazza di Castagneto Po all'inizio del XX secolo LocalizzazioneStato Italia Regione Piemonte Città metropolitana Torino AmministrazioneSindacoDanilo Borca (lista civica) dal 27-5-2019 TerritorioCoordinate45°09′33.3″N 7°53′21.93″E / 45.159251°N 7.889425°E45.159251; 7.889425 (Castagneto Po)Coordinate: 45°09′33.3″N 7°53′21.93″E / 45.159251°N 7.889425°E45.159251; 7.8...

 

Чайки

У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Чайки (значения). Чайки Доминиканская чайкаЗападная чайкаКалифорнийская чайкаМорская чайка Научная классификация Домен:ЭукариотыЦарство:ЖивотныеПодцарство:ЭуметазоиБез ранга:Двусторонне-симметричныеБез ранга:Вторич...

Richard Money

English football player and manager (born 1955) Richard Money Money in 2007Personal informationFull name Richard Money[1]Date of birth (1955-10-13) 13 October 1955 (age 68)[1]Place of birth Lowestoft, EnglandHeight 5 ft 11 in (1.80 m)[2]Position(s) DefenderYouth career Ipswich TownSenior career*Years Team Apps (Gls)1972-1973 Lowestoft Town 1973–1977 Scunthorpe United 173 (4)1977–1980 Fulham 106 (3)1980–1982 Liverpool 14 (0)1981 → Derby Count...

 

Montroc

Hamlet in Chamonix, France View of Montroc, Chamonix District Montroc is a hamlet in eastern France, located in the territory of the commune of Chamonix. Several houses at Poses 150 m north-east of Montroc were destroyed on 9 February 1999 by a slab avalanche from Bec du Lachat and Mont Peclerey on the Mont Blanc massif, killing 12 people. In July, 2003, the mayor of Chamonix, Michel Charlet, received a three-month suspended prison sentence for his part in the handling of events immediat...

 

Bank of Hamilton

Canadian bank This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Bank of Hamilton – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Bank of HamiltonFounded1872Founderlocal businessmenDefunct1924FateMergedSuccessorMerged into Canadian Bank of Commerce (now mode...

Industry (archaeology)

Typological classification of stone tools Not to be confused with industrial archaeology, the archaeology of (modern) industrial sites. Video of the extraction of a stone tool from a silex rock. Acheulean handaxes from Kent. The types shown are (clockwise from top) cordate, ficron, and ovate. In the archaeology of the Stone Age, an industry or technocomplex[1] is a typological classification of stone tools. An industry consists of a number of lithic assemblages, typically including a ...

 

Humanoid robot

Body shape similar to a human Ameca generation 1 pictured in the lab at Engineered Arts Ltd. A humanoid robot is a robot resembling the human body in shape. The design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools and environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of bipedal locomotion, or for other purposes. In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though some humanoid robots may replicate only part of the body, for example,...

 

Suster El

Suster ElGenre Drama Roman Skenario Endik Koeswoyo Novy Pritania Sutradara Sony Gaokasak Angling Sagaran Pemeran Adinda Azani Fauzan Nasrul Lavicky Nicholas Chand Kelvin Fendy Chow Penggubah lagu temaStevan PasaribuLagu pembukaBelum Siap Kehilangan oleh Stevan PasaribuLagu penutupBelum Siap Kehilangan oleh Stevan PasaribuPenata musikAndhika TriyadiNegara asalIndonesiaBahasa asliBahasa IndonesiaJmlh. musim1Jmlh. episode49ProduksiProduser eksekutif Fiaz Servia Riza ProduserChand Parwez S...

North Adams, Massachusetts

City in Massachusetts, United StatesNorth AdamsCityMain Street SealMotto: We Hold the Western GatewayLocation in Berkshire County and the state of Massachusetts.North AdamsLocation in the United StatesCoordinates: 42°42′N 73°7′W / 42.700°N 73.117°W / 42.700; -73.117CountryUnited StatesCommonwealthMassachusettsCountyBerkshireSettled1745Incorporated1878 (Town)Incorporated1895 (City)Government • TypeMayor-council city • MayorJennifer ...

 

Tedjo Sukmono

Tedjo Sukmono Wakapuspen TNIMasa jabatan1 Oktober 2020 – 7 November 2021PendahuluTunggul SuropatiPenggantiKisdiyanto Informasi pribadiLahir(1969-05-19)19 Mei 1969Malang, Jawa TimurMeninggal7 November 2021(2021-11-07) (umur 52)Serpong, Tangerang Selatan, BantenAlma materAkademi Angkatan Laut (1991)Karier militerPihak IndonesiaDinas/cabang TNI Angkatan LautMasa dinas1991—2021Pangkat Laksamana Pertama TNINRP10073/PSatuanKorps PelautSunting kotak info • L �...

 

Nje

This article is about the Cyrillic letter. For its Latin-script equivalent, see Nj (digraph). For the jazz band, see The NJE. Cyrillic letter Cyrillic letter NjePhonetic usage:/ɲ/The Cyrillic scriptSlavic lettersАА̀А̂А̄ӒБВГҐДЂЃЕЀЕ̄Е̂ЁЄЖЗЗ́ЅИІЇꙆЍИ̂ӢЙЈКЛЉМНЊОО̀О̂ŌӦПРСС́ТЋЌУУ̀У̂ӮЎӰФХЦЧЏШЩꙎЪЪ̀ЫЬѢЭЮЮ̀ЯЯ̀Non-Slavic lettersӐА̊А̃Ӓ̄ӔӘӘ́Ә̃ӚВ̌ԜГ̑Г̇Г̣Г̌Г̂Г̆Г̈г̊ҔҒӺҒ̌ғ̊ӶД́Д...

中国人民政治协商会议全国委员会副主席

中国人民政治协商会议全国委员会副主席中国人民政治协商会议会徽現任石泰峰、胡春华、沈跃跃、王勇、周强、帕巴拉·格列朗杰、何厚铧、梁振英、巴特尔、苏辉、邵鸿、高云龙、陈武、穆虹、咸辉、王东峰、姜信治、蒋作君、何报翔、王光谦、秦博勇、朱永新、杨震自2023年3月10日在任提名者全国政协（全体）会议主席团根据中共中央的建议任命者全国政协（全体）会�...

 

E6 (mathematics)

78-dimensional exceptional simple Lie group This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Algebraic structure → Group theoryGroup theory Basic notions Subgroup Normal subgroup Quotient group (Semi-)direct product Group homomorphisms kernel image direct sum wreath product simple finite infinite continuous multiplic...

 

Super Mario Bros. 2

1988 video game This article is about the international sequel to Super Mario Bros. For the Japanese sequel, see Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels. For other uses, see Super Mario Bros. 2 (disambiguation). Mario 2 redirects here. For other uses, see Mario II. 1988 video gameSuper Mario Bros. 2North American box artDeveloper(s)Nintendo R&D4Nintendo R&D2 (GBA)Publisher(s)NintendoDirector(s)Kensuke TanabeProducer(s)Shigeru MiyamotoDesigner(s)Kensuke TanabeYasuhisa YamamuraHideki KonnoPr...

Salsomaggiore Terme

Cet article est une ébauche concernant une localité italienne et l’Émilie-Romagne. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. Salsomaggiore Terme Armoiries Drapeau Administration Pays Italie Région Émilie-Romagne  Province Parme  Code postal 43039 Code ISTAT 034032 Code cadastral H720 Préfixe tel. 0524 Démographie Gentilé salsési Population 20 051 hab. (31-12-2010[1]) Densité...

 

ليتو

ليتو   الأب كاز[1]  الأم فويب (مثيولوجيا)[1]  ذرية أبولو[1][2]،  وأرتميس[3][1][2]  تعديل مصدري - تعديل     لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع ليتو (توضيح). ليتو هي أم الإلهان التوأم أبولو وآرتميس من زيوس، وابنة كلاً من جبابرة كايوس وفيبي.[4][5][6...