Japanese macaque

"Snow monkey" redirects here. For the Japanese train service named "SnowMonkey", see Nagano Electric Railway 2100 series.

Japanese macaque
A Japanese macaque mother grooming her child
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Cercopithecidae
Genus: Macaca
Species:
M. fuscata
Binomial name
Macaca fuscata
Blyth, 1875[2]
Subspecies

Macaca fuscata fuscata
Macaca fuscata yakui

Japanese macaque range

The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata), also known as the snow monkey, is a terrestrial Old World monkey species that is native to Japan. Colloquially, they are referred to as "snow monkeys" because some live in areas where snow covers the ground for months each year – no other non-human primate lives farther north, nor in a colder climate.[3] Individuals have brownish grey fur, pinkish-red faces, and short tails. Two subspecies are known.[4]

In Japan, the species is known as Nihonzaru (ニホンザル, a combination of Nihon 日本 "Japan" + saru 猿 "monkey") to distinguish it from other primates, but the Japanese macaque is very familiar in Japan—as it is the only species of monkey in Japan—so when Japanese people simply say saru, they usually have the Japanese macaque in mind.

Physical characteristics

Skull of a Japanese macaque

The Japanese macaque is sexually dimorphic. Males weigh on average 11.3 kg (25 lb), while females average 8.4 kg (19 lb).[5] Macaques from colder areas tend to weigh more than ones from warmer areas.[6] The average height for males is 57.0 cm (22.4 in), while the average female height is 52.3 cm (20.6 in).[5] The weight of their brain is approximately 95 g (3.4 oz). Japanese macaques have short stumps for tails that average 92.5 mm (3.64 in) in males and 79.1 mm (3.11 in) in females.[6] The macaque has a pinkish face and posterior.[7] The rest of its body is covered in brown or greyish hair.[5] The coat of the macaque is well-adapted to the cold and its thickness increases as temperatures decrease. The macaque can cope with temperatures as low as −20 °C (−4 °F).[8]

Macaques mostly move on all fours. They are semiterrestrial, with females spending more time in the trees and males spending more time on the ground. Macaques are known to leap. They are very good swimmers and have been reported to swim a distance of more than half a kilometer.[5][9] The lifespan of Japanese macaques is up to 32 years for females and up to 28 years for males, which is high when compared to what typically is seen in other macaque species.[10]

Behavior

Group structure

Japanese macaques grooming

Japanese macaques live in matrilineal societies,[5] and females stay in their natal groups for life, while males move out before they are sexually mature.[11] Macaque groups tend to contain adults of both sexes. In addition, a Japanese macaque troop contains several matrilines. These matrilines may exist in a dominance hierarchy with all members of a specific group ranking over members of a lower-ranking group.[12] Temporary all-male groups also exist, composed of those who have recently left their natal groups and are about to transfer to another group.[5] However, many males spend ample time away from any group,[13] and may leave and join several groups.[5]

Japanese Macaques bathing in hot springs near Nagano, Japan.
Japanese macaques at Jigokudani Hotspring in Nagano have become notable for their winter visits to the spa
Jigokudani

Females of the troop exist in a stable dominance hierarchy and a female's rank depends on that of her mother. Younger females tend to rank higher than their older siblings.[12][14] Higher-ranking matrilines have greater social cohesion.[15] Strong relationships with dominant females can allow dominant males to retain their rank when they otherwise would not.[10] Males within a group normally[16] have a dominance hierarchy, with one male having alpha status. The dominance status of male macaques usually changes when a former alpha male leaves or dies.[17] Other ways in which status of male hierarchy changes, is when an alpha male loses his rank or when a troop splits, leaving a new alpha male position open.[17] The longer a male is in a troop, the higher his status is likely to be.[18]

Females typically maintain both social relationships and hygiene through grooming. Grooming occurs regardless of climate or season.[19] Females who are matrilineally related groom each other more often than unrelated individuals.[20] Females will groom unrelated females to maintain group cohesion and social relationships between different kinships in a troop.[21] Nevertheless, a female will only groom a limited number of other females, even if the group expands.[21] Females will groom males, usually for hygienic purposes, but that behavior also may serve to attract dominant males to the group.[22] Mothers pass their grooming techniques to their offspring, most probably through social rather than genetic means,[23] as a cultural characteristic.

Documented female troop leadership

Yakei is a female who rose to leadership of her troop at Takasakiyama Natural Zoological Garden in 2021. Her troop consists of 677 Japanese macaque monkeys who live in a sanctuary that was established in 1952 at the zoological garden. At age nine, she overthrew the dominant males in her troop and displaced her high-ranking mother as well. She became the first female leader of the troop during its recorded history of seventy years.[24] Yakei has retained her leadership position through her first breeding season that had been thought to be a time when she might have been challenged successfully.[25] Both scientific and popular interest is leading to extensive coverage of Yakei's behavior.

Mating and parenting

Macaques mating

A male and female macaque form a pair bond and mate, feed, rest, and travel together during the mating season, and on average, this relationship typically lasts 16 days.[26] Females enter into consortships with an average of four males a season.[27] Higher-ranking males have longer consortships than their subordinates.[26] In addition, higher-ranking males try to disrupt consortships of lower-ranking males.[28] Females may choose to mate with males of any rank. However, dominant males mate more frequently than others, as they are more successful in mate guarding.[29] The female decides whether mating takes place. In addition, a dominant position does not mean a male will successfully mate with a female.[5] Males may join other troops temporarily during the mating season and mate with those females.[30]

During the mating season, the face and genitalia of males redden and their tails stand erect,[31] and the faces and anogenital regions of females turn scarlet.[31] Macaques copulate both on the ground and in the trees.[32] Roughly one in three copulations leads to ejaculation.[33] Macaques signal when they are ready to mate by looking backward over a shoulder, staying still, or walking backward toward their potential partner.[34] A female emits a "squawk", a "squeak", or produces an atonal "cackle" during copulation. Males have no copulatory vocalizations.

Females engage in same-sex mounting unrelated to the mating season and therefore, are mounted more often by other females than by males.[35] This behavior has led to proposals in literature that female Japanese macaques are generally bisexual, rather than preferentially homo- or heterosexual.[36]

Mother macaque with infant
Macaque juvenile yawning

A macaque mother moves to the periphery of her troop to give birth in a secluded spot,[37] unless the group is moving, when the female must stay with it.[38] Macaques usually give birth on the ground.[5] Infants are born with dark-brown hair.[39] A mother and her infant tend to avoid other troop members. The infants consume their first solid food at five to six weeks old, and by seven weeks, can forage independently from their mothers.[39] A mother carries her infant on her belly for its first four weeks. After this time, the mother carries her infant on her back, as well. Infants continue to be carried past a year.[39] The mother may socialize again very slowly.[40] However, alloparenting has been observed, usually by females who have not had infants of their own.[39] Male care of infants occurs in some groups, but not in others; when they do, usually, older males protect, groom, and carry an infant as a female would.[41]

Infants have fully developed their locomotive abilities within three to four months.[42] When an infant is seven months old, its mother discourages suckling; full weaning happens by its eighteenth month.

In some populations, male infants tend to play in larger groups more often than females.[43] However, female infants have more social interaction than their male counterparts,[43] and female infants will associate with individuals of all ages and sexes. When males are two years old, they prefer to associate with other males around the same age.[44]

Communication

During feeding or moving, Japanese macaques often emit sounds that are called "coos". These vocalizations most likely serve to keep the troop together and strengthen social relations among females.[45] Macaques usually respond to coos with coos of their own.[46] Coos also are uttered before grooming along with vocalizations identified as "girney" calls. Variants of the "girney" calls are made in different contexts.[47] This call also serves as appeasement between individuals in aggressive encounters.[48] Macaques have alarm calls for alerting to danger and other calls to signal estrus that sound similar to danger alerts. Threat calls are heard during aggressive encounters and are often uttered by supporters of those involved in antagonistic interactions. The individual being supported supports those callers in the future.[49]

Intelligence and culture

Macaques at a hot spring
The famous Japanese warrior Kato Kiyomasa was depicted with his macaque who holds a writing brush, by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1883)

The Japanese macaque is an intelligent species. Researchers studying this species at Koshima Island in Japan left sweet potatoes out on the beach for them to eat, then witnessed one female, named Imo (Japanese for yam or potato), washing the food off with river water rather than brushing it off as the others were doing, and later even dipping her clean food into salty seawater.[50][51][52] After a while, other members of her troop started to copy her behavior. This trait was then passed on from generation to generation, until eventually all except the oldest members of the troop were washing their food and even seasoning it in the sea.[50][51] Similarly, she was the first observed balling up wheat with air pockets and soil, throwing it all into the water, and waiting for the wheat to float back up free from the soil to consume it.[51][52] An altered misaccount of this incident is the basis for the "hundredth monkey" effect.[53] That behavior also spread among her troop members.

The macaque has other unusual behaviours, including bathing together in hot springs and rolling snowballs for fun.[51] In winter, the bathing is associated with lower levels of stress, with the higher ranking females dominating the restricted resource to compensate for the higher rates of stress outside of the spring.[54] Also, in recent studies, the Japanese macaque has been found to develop different accents, similar to human cultures.[55] Macaques in areas separated by only a few hundred miles may have very different pitches in their calls, their form of communication. The Japanese macaque has been involved in many studies concerning neuroscience and also is used in drug testing.[56][57][58]

Ecology

The Japanese macaque is diurnal. In colder areas, from autumn to early winter, macaques feed in between different activities. In the winter, macaques have two to four feeding bouts each day, with fewer daily activities. In the spring and summer, they have two or three bouts of feeding daily.[32] In warmer areas such as Yakushima, daily activities are more varied. The typical day for a macaque is 20.9% inactive, 22.8% traveling, 23.5% feeding, 27.9% social grooming, 1.2% self-grooming, and 3.7% other activities.[59] Macaques usually sleep in trees, but they also sleep on the ground, as well as on or near rocks and fallen trees.[5] During the winter, macaques huddle together for warmth on sleeping grounds.[60] Macaques at Jigokudani Monkey Park are notable for visiting the hot springs in the winter to warm up.

Diet

The Japanese macaque is omnivorous and eats a variety of foods. More than 213 species of plants are included in the macaque's diet.[61] They also eat insects, bark, and soil.[61] On Yakushima Island, fruit, mature leaves, and fallen seeds are primarily eaten.[62] The macaque also eats fungi, ferns, invertebrates, and other parts of plants.[62] In addition, in Yakushima, their diets vary seasonally with fruits being eaten in the summer and herbs being eaten in the winter.[63] Farther north, macaques mostly eat seasonal foods such as fruit and nuts to store fat for the winter, when food is scarce.[64] On the northern island of Kinkasan, macaques mostly eat fallen seeds, herbs, young leaves, and fruits.[65] When preferred food items are not available, macaques dig up underground plant parts (roots or rhizomes) or eat soil and fish.[61][66]

  • A macaque eating yakiimo
    A macaque eating yakiimo
  • A Japanese macaque eating various fruits and vegetables
    A Japanese macaque eating various fruits and vegetables

Distribution and habitat

The Japanese macaque is the northernmost-living non-human primate. It is found on three of the four main Japanese islands, south of the Blakiston's Line: Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu.[5] The northernmost populations live on the Shimokita Peninsula, the northernmost point of Honshu.[67] Several of Japan's smaller islands are inhabited by macaques as well.[5] The southernmost population living on Yakushima Island is a subspecies of the mainland macaques, M. fuscata yakui.[67] A study in 1989 estimated the total population of wild Japanese macaques to be 114,431 individuals.[5][68]

The Japanese macaque lives in a variety of habitats. It inhabits subtropical forests in the southern part of its range and subarctic forests in mountainous areas in the northern part of its range. It can be found in both warm and cool forests, such as the deciduous forests of central and northern Japan and the broadleaf evergreen forests in the southwest of the islands.[67] Warm temperate evergreen and broadleaf forests and cool temperate deciduous broadleaf forests are the most important habitats for macaques.[5]

In 1972, a troop of approximately 150 Japanese macaques was relocated from Kyoto to a primate observatory in southwest Texas, United States. The observatory is an enclosed ranch-style environment and the macaques have been allowed to roam with minimal human interference. At first, many perished in the unfamiliar habitat, which consists of arid brushland. The macaques eventually adapted to the environment, learned to avoid predators (such as eagles, coyotes, and rattlesnakes), and they learned to forage for mesquite beans, cactus fruits, and other foods. The surviving macaques flourished, and by 1995, the troop consisted of 500 to 600 individuals. In 1996, hunters maimed or killed four escaped macaques; as a result, legal restrictions were publicly clarified and funds were raised to establish a new 186-acre (75 ha) sanctuary near Dilley, Texas.[69][70] In 1999, the Animal Protection Institute took over management of the sanctuary and began to rescue other species of primates. As of 2017, the troop cohabitated with six other species of macaque.[71]

Relationship with humans

Macaques gathering for yakiimo (sweet potato) being handed out by an attendant at the Iwatayama Monkey Park

Traditional human behaviors that are threats to macaques have been slash-and-burn agriculture, use of forest woods for construction and fuel, and hunting. Since World War II, these threats have declined due to social and economic changes in Japan,[72] including the prohibition of macaque hunting in 1947.[73] New threats have emerged, in particular the replacement of natural forests with lumber plantations.[72]

Protection for the macaques, increased afforestation, and the human-caused extinction of their natural predators the Japanese wolf, have led to the macaque population growing heavily since the 1940s. Because of this, and land-use changes increasing the proximity of agriculture to the macaques' range,[74] they have become a major agricultural pest; they can climb over regular fences and quickly realise that deterrents such as scarecrows do not pose an actual threat, so methods such as electric fences must be used.[75][76] In 2019, the cost of agricultural damage caused by macaques was around 900 million yen.[77] Over 20,000 macaques are culled each year in an attempt to reduce agricultural damage, and there are concerns that this culling is reducing the macaques' range.[74]

Macaques have often entered urban areas, with one macaque recorded living in central Tokyo for several months.[11] In 2022 the city of Yamaguchi experienced aggression from the monkeys with at least 50 people attacked.[78][79]

Cultural depictions

Main article: Monkeys in Japanese culture
Monkeys in a Plum Tree, Mori Sosen, 1808

The Japanese macaque has featured prominently in the religion, folklore, and art of Japan, as well as in proverbs and idiomatic expressions in the Japanese language.

In Shinto belief, mythical beasts known as raijū sometimes appeared as monkeys and kept Raijin, the god of lightning, company. The "three wise monkeys", who warn people to "see no evil, hear no evil and speak no evil", are carved in relief over the door of the famous Tōshō-gū shrine in Nikkō.

The Japanese macaque is a feature of several fairy tales, such as the tale of Momotarō and the fable about The Crab and the Monkey.[80][81]

The monkey is part of the Chinese zodiac. That zodiac has been used for centuries in Japan and led to many representations of the macaque for that figure.

The creature was sometimes portrayed in paintings of the rich cultural epoch, the Edo period that flourished from 1603 to 1867, as a tangible metaphor for a particular year. The early nineteenth-century artist and samurai, Watanabe Kazan (1793–1841), created a painting of a macaque.[82] The last great master of the ukiyo-e genre of woodblock printing and painting, Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, also featured the macaques in his prints. Also during the Edo period, numerous clasps for kimono or tobacco pouches (collectively called netsuke) were carved in the shape of macaques.[83]

Spoken references to macaques abound in the history of Japan. Originating from before his rise to power, the famed samurai, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was compared to a monkey in appearance and nicknamed Kozaru ("Little Monkey").[84] In modern Japanese culture, because monkeys are considered to indulge their libido openly and frequently (much the same way as rabbits are thought to in some Western cultures), a man who is preoccupied with sex might be compared to or metaphorically referred to as a monkey, as might a romantically involved couple who are exceptionally amorous.

References

  1. ^ Watanabe, K.; Tokita, K. (2020). "Macaca fuscata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T12552A195347803. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12552A195347803.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. ^ Blyth, Edward (1875). "Catalogue of the Mammals and Birds of Burma". The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 44 (II. Extra Number): 6.
  3. ^ Jigokudani Monkey Park, Nagano: Explore the Heart of Japan
  4. ^ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Fooden J, Aimi M. (2005) "Systematic review of Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata (Gray, 1870) ". Fieldiana: Zoology 104:1-200.
  6. ^ a b Hamada Y, Watanabe T, Iwamoto M. (1996) "Morphological variations among local populations of Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) ". In: Shotake T, Wada K, editors. Variations in the Asian macaques. Tokyo: Tokai Univ Pr. pp. 97–115.
  7. ^ Rowe N. (1996) The pictorial guide to the living primates. East Hampton (NY): Pogonias Pr. pp. 124–5.
  8. ^ Hori, Tetsuro; Nakayama, Teruo; Tokura, Hiromi; Hara, Fumie; Suzuki, Masatoshi (1977). "Thermoregulation of the Japanese macaque living in a snowy mountain area". Japanese Journal of Physiology. 27 (3): 305–319. doi:10.2170/jjphysiol.27.305. PMID 410988.
  9. ^ Takahata, Yukio; Suzuki, Shigeru; Agetsuma, Naoki; Okayasu, Naobi; Sugiura, Hideki; Takahashi, Hiroyuki; Yamagiwa, Juichi; Izawa, Kosei; Furuichi, Takeshi; Hill, David A.; Maruhashi, Tamaki; Saito, Chiemi; Saito, Shizue; Sprague, David S. (1998). "Reproduction of wild Japanese macaque females of Yakushima and Kinkazan Islands: A preliminary report". Primates. 39 (3): 339–349. doi:10.1007/BF02573082. S2CID 28382748.
  10. ^ a b Nakamichi, Masayuki; Kojima, Yasuo; Itoigawa, Naosuke; Imakawa, Shinji; Machida, Shoji (1995). "Interactions among adult males and females before and after the death of the alpha male in a free-ranging troop of Japanese macaques". Primates. 36 (3): 385–396. doi:10.1007/BF02382861. S2CID 45679471.
  11. ^ a b Fukuda F. (2004) "Dispersal and environmental disturbance in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) ". Prim Rep 68:53-69.
  12. ^ a b Koyama, Naoki (1967). "On dominance rank and kinship of a wild Japanese monkey troop in Arashiyama". Primates. 8 (3): 189–216. doi:10.1007/BF01731037. S2CID 34818469.
  13. ^ Sugiyama, Yukimaru (1976). "Life history of male Japanese monkeys". Advances in the Study of Behavior. 7: 255–284. doi:10.1016/S0065-3454(08)60169-2. ISBN 9780120045075.
  14. ^ Takahata Y. "Diachronic changes in the dominance relations of adult female Japanese monkeys of the Arashiyama B group". In: Fedigan LM& Asquith PJ, editors. The monkeys of Arashiyama: Thirty-five years of research in Japan and the west. Albany(NY): SUNY Pr. p123-39.
  15. ^ Koyama NF. (2003) "Matrilineal cohesion and social networks in Macaca fuscata". Int J Primatol 24(4):797-811.
  16. ^ Roth, Annie (2022-01-21). "Japan's Monkey Queen Faces Challenge to Her Reign: Mating Season". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-01-21.
  17. ^ a b Sprague DS, Suzuki S, Tsukahara T. (1996) "Variation in social mechanisms by which males attained the alpha rank among Japanese macaques". In: Fa JE, Lindburg DG, editors. Evolution and ecology of macaque societies. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge U Pr. p 444–58.
  18. ^ Takahashi, Hiroyuki (2002). "Changes of dominance rank, age, and tenure of wild Japanese macaque males in the Kinkazan A troop during seven years". Primates. 43 (2): 133–138. doi:10.1007/BF02629673. PMID 12082302. S2CID 26519477.
  19. ^ Ventura, Raffaella; Majolo, Bonaventura; Schino, Gabriele; Hardie, Scott (2005). "Differential effects of ambient temperature and humidity on allogrooming, self-grooming, and scratching in wild Japanese macaques". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 126 (4): 453–457. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20125. PMID 15386284.
  20. ^ Koyama N. (1991) "Grooming relationships in the Arashiyama group of Japanese monkeys". In: Fedigan LM, Asquith PJ, editors. The monkeys of Arashiyama: thirty-five years of research in Japan and the west. Albany (NY): SUNY Pr. p211-26.
  21. ^ a b Nakamichi, Masayuki; Shizawa, Yasuhiro (2003). "Distribution of grooming among adult females in a large, free-ranging group of Japanese macaques". International Journal of Primatology. 24 (3): 607–625. doi:10.1023/A:1023744515134. S2CID 22224829.
  22. ^ Tsukahara, Takahiro (1990). "Initiation and solicitation in male-female grooming in a wild Japanese macaque troop on Yakushima island". Primates. 31 (2): 147–156. doi:10.1007/BF02380937. S2CID 37662395.
  23. ^ Tanaka, Ichirou (1995). "Matrilineal distribution of louse egg-handling techniques during grooming in free-ranging Japanese macaques". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 98 (2): 197–201. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330980208. PMID 8644879.
  24. ^ Tumin, Remy, If you like sports, soap operas or primatology, this story is for you, Evening Briefing, The New York Times, January 21, 2022
  25. ^ Wartik, Nancy; Wolfe, Jonathan, The rein of Japan’s monkey queen has just begun, Evening Briefing, Number 8, The New York Times, Thursday, April 7, 2022
  26. ^ a b Huffman, Michael A. (1992). "Influences of female partner preference on potential reproductive outcome in Japanese macaques". Folia Primatologica. 59 (2): 77–88. doi:10.1159/000156645. PMID 1297630.
  27. ^ Gouzoules, Harold; Goy, Robert W. (1983). "Physiological and social influences on mounting behavior of troop-living female monkeys (Macaca fuscata)". American Journal of Primatology. 5 (1): 39–49. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350050105. PMID 31992009. S2CID 85909507.
  28. ^ Perloe, Sidney I. (1992). "Male mating competition, female choice and dominance in a free-ranging group of Japanese macaques". Primates. 33 (3): 289–304. doi:10.1007/BF02381191. S2CID 20575934.
  29. ^ Soltis, Joseph (1999). "Measuring male-female relationships during the mating season in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui)". Primates. 40 (3): 453–467. doi:10.1007/BF02557581. S2CID 45835173.
  30. ^ Sprague, D. S. (1991). "Mating by non-troop males among the Japanese macaques of Yakushima island". Folia Primatologica. 57 (3): 156–158. doi:10.1159/000156577.
  31. ^ a b Wolfe L. (1979) "Sexual maturation among members of a transported troop of Japanese macaques". Primates 20(3):411–8.
  32. ^ a b Yotsumoto N. (1976) "The daily activity rhythm in a troop of wild Japanese monkey". Primates 17(2):183-204.
  33. ^ MobileReference (15 December 2009). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of North American Mammals: A Comprehensive Guide to Mammals of North America. MobileReference. ISBN 978-1-60501-279-7. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  34. ^ Hanby JP, Brown CE. (1974) "The development of sociosexual behaviours in Japanese macaques Macaca fuscata". Behaviour 49:152–96.
  35. ^ Vasey, Paul L.; Foroud, Afra; Duckworth, Nadine; Kovacovsky, Stefani D. (2006). "Male–Female and Female–Female Mounting in Japanese Macaques: A Comparative Study of Posture and Movement". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 35 (2): 116–128. doi:10.1007/s10508-005-9007-1. PMID 16752116. S2CID 22047878.
  36. ^ Vasey, P. L. (2002). "Sexual partner preference in female Japanese macaques". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 31 (1): 51–62. doi:10.1023/A:1014079117864. PMID 11910792. S2CID 12551684.
  37. ^ Fedigan, L.M.; Zohar, S. (1997). "Sex differences in mortality of Japanese macaques: twenty-one years of data from the Arashiyama West population". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 102 (2): 161–175. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199702)102:2<161::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-1. PMID 9066898.
  38. ^ Thomsen R. (1997) "Observation of periparturitional behaviour in wild Yakushima macaques ( Macaca fuscata yakui) ". Folia Primatol 68(6):338–41.
  39. ^ a b c d Hiraiwa M (1981) "Maternal and alloparental care in a troop of free-ranging Japanese monkeys". Primates 22(3):309-29.
  40. ^ Bardi M, Shimizu K, Fujita S, Borgognini-Tarli S, Huffman MA. (2001) "Social behavior and hormonal correlates during the perinatal period in Japanese macaques". Horm Behav 39(3):239–46.
  41. ^ Gouzoules H. (1984) "Social relations of males and infants in a troop of Japanese monkeys: a consideration of causal mechanisms". In: Taub DM, editor. Primate paternalism. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. pp. 127–45.
  42. ^ Minami T. (1974) "Early mother-infant relations in Japanese monkeys". In: Kondo S, Kawai M, Ehara A, editors. Contemporary primatology, proceedings of the 5th International Congress of Primatology. Basel(CH): S. Karger. pp. 334–340.
  43. ^ a b Glick BB, Eaton GG, Johnson DF, Worlein J. (1986) "Social behavior of infant and mother Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata): effects of kinship, partner sex, and infant sex". Int J Primatol 7(2):139–55.
  44. ^ Nakamichi, Masayuki (1989). "Sex differences in social development during the first 4 years in a free-ranging group of Japanese monkeys, Macaca fuscata". Animal Behaviour. 38 (5): 737–748. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(89)80106-X. S2CID 53204541.
  45. ^ Mitani M. (1986) "Voiceprint identification and its application to sociological studies of wild Japanese monkeys" (Macaca fuscata yakui). Primates 27(4):397-412.
  46. ^ Sugiura H. (2001) "Vocal exchange of coo calls in Japanese macaques". In: Matsuzawa T, editor. Primate origins of human cognition and behavior. Tokyo: Springer. p135-54.
  47. ^ Masataka N. (1989) "Motivational referents of contact calls in Japanese monkeys". Ethology 80(1-4):265-73.
  48. ^ Blount B. 1985. "Girney" vocalizations among Japanese macaque females: context and function. Primates 26(4):424-35.
  49. ^ Machida S. (1990) "Threat calls in alliance formation by members of a captive group of Japanese monkeys". Primates 31(2):205-11.
  50. ^ a b Animal Diversity Web, § "Other Comments", ¶ 1, sent. 5, downloaded 2009-02-15T16:00+09:00
  51. ^ a b c d Blue Planet Biomes, ¶ 12, sent. 1, downloaded 2009-02-15T16:00+09:00
  52. ^ a b Karger.com "Carrying and Washing of Grass Roots by Free-Ranging Japanese Macaques at Katsuyama" by Nakamichi, Masayuki; Kato, Eiko; Kojima, Yasuo; and Itoigawa, Naosuke in Folia Primatologica: International Journal of Primatology; Vol. 69, No. 1, 1998, § "Abstract", ¶ 1, sent. 1, downloaded 2009-02-15T16:00+09:00
  53. ^ Amundson, Ron (Summer 1985). Kendrick Frazier ed. "The Hundredth Monkey Phenomenon". Skeptical Inquirer: 348–356.
  54. ^ Takeshita, Rafaela S. C.; Bercovitch, Fred B.; Kinoshita, Kodzue; Huffman, Michael A. (3 April 2018). "Beneficial effect of hot spring bathing on stress levels in Japanese macaques". Primates. 59 (3): 215–225. doi:10.1007/s10329-018-0655-x. PMID 29616368.
  55. ^ National Geographic "Monkeys Have Accent, Japanese Study Finds"
  56. ^ Isa, Tadashi; Yamane, Itaru; Hamai, Miya; Inagaki, Haruhisa (October 2009). "Japanese macaques as laboratory animals". Experimental Animals. 58 (5): 451–457. doi:10.1538/expanim.58.451. PMID 19897928.
  57. ^ Wadman, Meredith (8 March 2017). "U.S. asked to consider designating 300 primates at Oregon research center as threatened". Science Magazine. Washington, D.C., United States: American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
  58. ^ Miyabi, Takako; Nishimura, Ryohei; Mochizuki, Manabu; Sasaki, Nobuo; Mastubayashi, Kiyoaki (July 2001). "Chemical restraint by medetomidine and medetomidine–midazolam and its reversal by atipamezole in Japanese macaques ('Macaca fuscata')". Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia. 28 (3): 168–174. doi:10.1046/j.1467-2987.2001.00052.x. PMID 28404448.
  59. ^ Maruhashi T. (1981) "Activity patterns of a troop of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata yakui) on Yakushima island, Japan". Primates 22(1):1-14.
  60. ^ Takahashi H. (1997) "Huddling relationships in night-sleeping groups among wild Japanese macaques in Kinkazan island during winter". Primates 38(1):57-68.
  61. ^ a b c Koganezawa, M. (1974). "Food habits of Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata) in the Boso mountains". In Kondo, S; Kawai, M; Ehara, A (eds.). Contemporary primatology, proceedings of the 5th International Congress of Primatology. Basel(CH): S. Karger. pp. 380–383. ISBN 3-8055-2165-0.
  62. ^ a b Maruhashi, T. (1980). "Feeding behavior and diet of the Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata yakui) on Yakushima island, Japan". Primates. 21 (2): 141–60. doi:10.1007/BF02374030. S2CID 44494863.
  63. ^ Hanya, G. (2004). "Diet of a Japanese macaque troop in the coniferous forest of Yakushima". Int J Primatol. 25 (1): 55–69. doi:10.1023/B:IJOP.0000014645.78610.32. S2CID 8801410.
  64. ^ Hanya, G; Kiyono, M; Yamada, A; Suzuki, K; Furukawa, M; Yoshida, Y; Chijiiwa, A (2006). "Not only annual food abundance but also fallback food quality determines the Japanese macaque density: evidence from seasonal variations in home range size". Primates. 47 (3): 275–278. doi:10.1007/s10329-005-0176-2. PMID 16432639. S2CID 8930248.
  65. ^ Aetsuma, N; Nakagawa, N (1998). "Effects of habitat differences on feeding behaviors of Japanese monkeys: comparison between Yakushima and Kinkazan". Primates. 39 (3): 275–289. doi:10.1007/BF02573077. S2CID 23071267.
  66. ^ Tsuji, Y. (2010). "Regional, Temporal, and Interindividual Variation in the Feeding Ecology of Japanese Macaques". In Nakagawa, N.; Nakamichi, M.; Sugiura, H. (eds.). The Japanese Macaques. Primatology Monographs. Springer, Tokyo. pp. 99–127. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53886-8_5. ISBN 978-4-431-53886-8.
  67. ^ a b c Uehara S. (1975) "The importance of the temperate forest elements among woody food plants utilized by Japanese monkeys and its possible historical meaning for the establishment of the monkeys & apes; range: a preliminary report". In: Kondo S, Kawai M, Ehara A, editors. Contemporary primatology, proceedings of the 5th International Congress of Primatology. Basel(CH):S. Karger. p392-400.
  68. ^ "Primate Info Net".
  69. ^ Baker, Ed (5 August 2005). "The Legendary Snow Monkeys of Texas: A brief open season on monkeys resulted in protections for them in the Lone Star State". The Austin Chronicle. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
  70. ^ Born Free USA: Primate Sanctuary: About the Sanctuary, 2003–2011, retrieved 3 May 2011
  71. ^ Garcia, Adrian (2017-06-06). "South Texas town home to largest free-roaming monkey sanctuary in the U.S." KSAT. Retrieved 2021-12-05.
  72. ^ a b Sprague DS. (2002) "Monkeys in the backyard: encroaching wildlife and rural communities in Japan". In: Fuentes A, Wolfe LD, editors. Primates face face: conservation implications of human-nonhuman primate interconnections. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge U Pr. p254-72.
  73. ^ Mito, Yoshihisa; Sprague, David S. (2012). "The Japanese and Japanese Monkeys: Dissonant Neighbors Seeking Accommodation in a Shared Habitat". In Radhakrishna, Sindhu; Huffman, Michael A.; Sinha, Anindya (eds.). The Macaque Connection: Cooperation and Conflict between Humans and Macaques. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 33–51. ISBN 9781461439677.
  74. ^ a b Enari, Hiroto (6 April 2021). "Human–Macaque Conflicts in Shrinking Communities: Recent Achievements and Challenges in Problem Solving in Modern Japan". Mammal Study. 46 (2). doi:10.3106/ms2019-0056. Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  75. ^ 渡邊邦夫 「ニホンザル」『動物世界遺産 レッド・データ・アニマルズ1 ユーラシア、北アメリカ』小原秀雄・浦本昌紀・太田英利・松井正文編著、講談社、2000年、139頁。
  76. ^ 加藤陸奥雄、沼田眞、渡辺景隆、畑正憲監修 『日本の天然記念物』、講談社、1995年、716-720頁。
  77. ^ "全国の野生鳥獣による農作物被害状況について(令和元年度)" (in Japanese). 農林水産省. Retrieved 12 August 2024.
  78. ^ Osborne, Margaret (28 July 2022). "City in Japan Under Siege by Marauding Monkeys". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  79. ^ Maishman, Elsa (27 July 2022). "Japan monkeys: Member of gang terrorising locals caught and killed". BBC News. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  80. ^ Ozaki, Yei Theodora (1903). "The Quarrel of Tee Monkey and the Crab". The Japanese Fairy Book. Archibald Constable & Co. Archived from the original on November 29, 2010.
  81. ^ Ozaki, Yei Theodora (1903). "Momotaro, or the story of the Son of a Peach". The Japanese Fairy Book. Archibald Constable & Co.
  82. ^ Keene, Donald (2006). Frog In The Well: Portraits of Japan by Watanabe Kazan 1793–1841. Asia Perspectives. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13826-1.
  83. ^ Okada, Yuzuru (1951). Netsuke: A Miniature Art of Japan. Tokyo: Japan Travel Bureau.
  84. ^ Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko (21 April 1989). The Monkey as Mirror. Princeton, New Jersey, United States: Princeton University Press. p. 44. ISBN 069102846X.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Macaca fuscata.