Built in the Ionic order, it is conventionally identified as a pagan temple built by King Tiridates I in the first century AD as a temple to the sun god Mihr (Mithra). A competing hypothesis sees it as a second century tomb. It collapsed in a 1679 earthquake, but much of its fragments remained on the site. Renewed interest in the 19th century led to excavations in the early and mid-20th century. It was reconstructed in 1969–75, using the anastylosis technique. It is one of the main tourist attractions in Armenia and the central shrine of Hetanism (Armenian neopaganism).
Setting
The site is in the village of Garni, in Armenia's Kotayk Province, at 1,400 m (4,600 ft) above sea level.[7] The temple is at the edge of a triangular promontory rising above the ravine of the Azat River and the Gegham mountains.[8] It is a part of the fortress of Garni,[d] one of Armenia's oldest,[9] that was strategically significant for the defense of the major cities in the Ararat plain.[8] Besides the temple, the site contains a Bronze Age cyclopean masonry wall, a cuneiform inscription by king Argishti I of Urartu (who called it Giarniani),[10] a Roman bath with a partly preserved mosaic floor with a Greek inscription,[11] ruins of palace, other "paraphernalia of the Greco-Roman world",[12] the medieval round church of St. Sion (Zion), and other objects (e.g., medieval khachkars).[13] In the first century, Tacitus mentioned castellum Gorneas as a major fortress in his Annals.[14][10]
Date and function
The precise date and the classification of the structure as a temple remain topics of continual scholarly debate.[15][e]Christina Maranci calls it an Ionic structure with an "unclear function." She writes that "while often identified as temple, it may have been a funerary monument, perhaps serving as a royal tomb."[17]
The generally accepted view, especially in Armenian historiography, attributes its construction to king Tiridates I and dates it 77 AD.[f] The date is calculated based on a Greek inscription, which names Tiridates the Sun (Helios Tiridates) as the founder of the temple.[g][8] The inscription states that the temple was constructed in the eleventh year of the reign of Tiridates.[28][18] While Movses Khorenatsi attributed it to Tiridates III, most scholars now ascribe it to Tiridates I.[28]
The Sun Tiridatēs of Greater Armenia, lord as despot, built a temple for the queen; the invincible... in the eleventh year of his reign. ...Under the protection of the... may the priest to the great cave (?) in the vain (?) of the witness and thanks.
This date is calculated based on Tiridates's visit to Rome in 66 AD, during which he was crowned by Roman emperorNero following a peace treaty ending the war with Parthia over Armenia (58–63).[31] To rebuild the city of Artaxata, destroyed by the Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, Nero gave Tiridates 50 million drachmas and provided him with Roman craftsmen. Upon his return to Armenia, Tiridates began a major project of reconstruction, which included rebuilding the fortress of Garni.[32] It is during this period that the temple is thought to have been built.[33]Nina Garsoïan posited that it is "usually dated to the first century on the basis of its style and use of a dry-masonry technique with swallowtail clamps, rather than the later mortar binder."[16]
The temple at sunset
In Armenia, the temple is commonly believed to have been dedicated to Mihr, the sun god in the Zoroastrian-influenced Armenian mythology and the equivalent of Mithra.[h][37] Tiridates, like other Armenian monarchs, considered Mihr his patron. Some scholars argue that, given the historical context in which the temple was constructed—after his coronation in Rome—it would be logical to assume that Tiridates dedicated the temple to his patron god.[33] Furthermore, in 2011, white marble sculptures of bull hooves were discovered some 20 metres (66 ft) from the temple, potentially the remnants of a Mihr sculpture, who was often portrayed in a fight with a bull.[38][39]
Telfer believed that it was built by Greek workmen.[40] Fetvadjian suggested that it was built by Roman architects.[41] Maranci maintains that imperial Roman workmen may have taken part.[17] Nersessian argued that "the workmen were local, with experience of carving basalt."[28] Harutyunyan assumed that local workmen were involved.[3]
Some scholars argue that it may have been built on top of a Urartian temple.[35][42]
Mausoleum or tomb
An aerial view
Not all scholars are convinced that the structure was a temple. Among early sceptics, Kamilla Trever suggested in 1950 that based on a different interpretation of the extant literature and the evidence provided by coinage, the erection of the temple started in 115 AD. The pretext for its construction would have been the declaration of Armenia as a Roman province[28] and the temple would have housed the imperial effigy of Trajan.[43]
In 1982 Richard D. Wilkinson suggested that the building is a tomb, probably constructed c. 175 AD in honor of one of the Romanized kings of Armenia of the late 2nd century. This theory is based on a comparison to Graeco-Roman buildings of western Asia Minor (e.g. Nereid Monument, Belevi Mausoleum, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus),[14] the discovery of nearby graves that date to about that time, and the discovery of a few marble pieces of the Asiatic sarcophagus style. Wilkinson furthermore states that there is no direct evidence linking the structure to Mithras or Mihr, and that the Greek inscription attributed to Tiridates I probably refers to the fortress and not to the colonnaded structure. He also notes that it is unlikely that a pagan temple would survive destruction during Armenia's 4th-century conversion to Christianity when all other such temples were destroyed.[44][23]
Wilkinson's theory has been endorsed by James R. Russell,[45]A. E. Redgate,[46]Robert H. Hewsen,[9]Matthew Canepa,[47] C. S. Lightfoot,[48] and others. Russell finds the view of the structure being a temple of Mihr baseless and is skeptical that the Greek inscription refers to the temple.[49] He suggested that the "splendid mausoleum" was erected by Romans living in Armenia.[50] Russell agreed with Wilkinson's interpretation that it was a 2nd-century tomb, "possibly of one of the Romanized kings of Armenia," such as Sohaemus, and that it is "unique for the country and testifies to a particularly strong Roman presence."[45]Felix Ter-Martirosov also believed it was built in the latter half of the 2nd century.[51] Hewsen argued, based on the construction of a church in the 7th century next to it rather than in its place, that the building was "more likely the tomb of one of the Roman-appointed kings of Armenia," such as Tiridates I or Sohaemus (r. 140–160).[9]
Medieval history
Arabic inscriptions near the entrance1291 inscription of Khoshak Zakarian
In the early fourth century,[i] when King Tiridates III adopted Christianity as Armenia's state religion, all pagan places of worship in the country were destroyed by Gregory the Illuminator.[54] Scholars regard it as the only pagan, Hellenistic, or Greco-Roman (classical) structure to have survived the widespread destruction.[j][k] Scholars continue to debate why it was exempted from destruction. Zhores Khachatryan argues that it underwent depaganization and was thereafter seen as a fine structure within the royal palace complex.[61]
According to Movses Khorenatsi a "cooling-off house" (tun hovanots) was built within the fortress of Garni for Khosrovidukht, the sister of Tiridates III. Some scholars believe the temple was thus turned into a royal summer house.[8][58][62] The structure presumably underwent some changes. Cult statue(s) in the cella were removed, the opening in the roof for skylight was closed, and the entrance was transformed and adjusted for residence.[63]
Ter-Martirosov argued that after Armenia's Christianization, it was initially a royal shrine, but after Khosrovidukht's death c. 325/326 it was transformed into a Christian mausoleum dedicated to her.[51]Hamlet Petrosyan and Zhores Khachatryan rejected the postulated Christianization of the temple.[32]Dickran Kouymjian also rejected its use as a Christian building.[64] In the Middle Ages, variously dated between the 7th and 10th centuries,[9] a round church of St. Sion (Zion) was built immediately west of it. Their relationship remains unclear, but Maranci suggested that "it seems likely that one did exist".[59] Hewsen suggested that the church was built next to it rather than in its place because it was a tomb, not a pagan temple.[9]
The walls of the temple bear six Arabic inscriptions in the Kufic style and one in Persian in the naskh script, which have all been paleographically dated to the ninth to tenth centuries.[65][23] They commemorate the capture of the fortress and may point to the temple's conversion into a mosque.[35] On its entryway, there is a large Armenian inscription from 1291, left by Princess Khoshak of Garni and her son, Amir Zakare. Khoshak, the granddaughter of Ivane I Zakarian, recorded the exemption of the people of Garni from taxes paid in wine, goats, and sheep.[66][l]
Medieval Christian Armenian chroniclers referred to it as the "throne of Trdat" (Տրդատայ թախտ, Trdata t‘akht).[69][m] In the 13th century, Kirakos Gandzaketsi called it the "marvellous throne of Trdat."[69][73] In the last major written record about the temple before its collapse, poet Simeon of Aparan penned a lament in 1593.[n] He grieved the past greatness of Armenia and mentioned the number of its columns and steps, and noted the use of iron clamps and lead.[77] It was also visited by Grigor Daranaghtsi (Kamakhetsi) in the early 1600s.[69][78]
European travelers Jean Chardin, who visited Armenia in 1673 before the earthquake, and James Morier, who visited in the 1810s,[87] both incorrectly described it through local informants since they never actually visited the site.[14]Robert Ker Porter, who visited in the late 1810s, described what he saw as a "confused pile of beautiful fragments ... all mingled together in broken disorder." He provided a drawing of the site.[14][88]
Another European to visit and document the ruins of the temple was Frédéric DuBois de Montperreux, who proposed a reconstruction of the building in his 1839 book,[14][89] which Wilkinson described as "rather inaccurate."[90] Montperreux, who visited in March 1834, wrote that the Armenians respect the building so greatly that "no one among them would want to remove a stone, a fragment of cornice for his own use, much less let others do it."[91]John Buchan Telfer, who visited in the 1870s,[92] removed a fragment of the architrave bearing a lion head,[o] which he bequeathed to the British Museum, where it remains to this day.[93]
In 1880, the Russian archaeologist Aleksey Uvarov, possibly inspired by the contemporaneous relocation of the Pergamon Altar from Asia Minor to Germany, proposed that the stones be moved to Tiflis and be reconstructed there according to de Montpereux's plan.[94] Lori Khatchadourian suggests that the proposal "could be read as an attempt at co-opting Armenia's Roman past to the glory of Russia through the relocation of its most iconic monument to the nearest administrative center."[94] The governor of Erivan, citing technical difficulties with moving its parts, did not implement the plan and the project was abandoned.[95][96]
Nikolai Marr led the first professional excavation[69] in 1909–11 along with Yakov I. Smirnov and architect Konstantin K. Romanov.[97]Kamilla Trever later wrote that these works were not archaeological excavations in the strict sense, but rather consisted mostly of uncovering, cleaning up and categorizing the fragments.[98][99] Works were stopped due to lack of funds and the results, still unpublished, were reported to the Russian Archaeological Society.[100] Romanov proposed a reconstruction of the structure in 1912[101] (published in 1934).[102]
Integrating a pre- and non-Christian structure into the cultural landscape took on special importance during the Soviet period.[103] In the early 1930s, Nikoghayos Buniatian (Nikolai Buniatov) thoroughly studied the structure[99] and developed a detailed plan for its complete reconstruction.[104] Buniatian sought to completely reconstruct it, but the timing was unfavorable.[104][105] Along with architect Konstantine Hovhannisyan, he partly reerected its lower sections in 1933–34, which was later found to contain numerous errors and was subsequently reverted before its eventual reconstruction.[106]
In 1940, the Soviet Armenian government gifted an Ionic capital from Garni to the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.[107][108] While considered,[109][110] it was not returned during its reconstruction and remains on display there, where museum director Mikhail Piotrovsky said it appears "significantly more monumental" than at the temple.[111]
Reconstruction
The temple ruins in 1947[112]Reconstruction underway in 1974[113]
In 1949 the Armenian Academy of Sciences began systematic excavations of the Garni fortress led by Babken Arakelyan, with Alexander Sahinian focusing on the temple itself. It was one of the flagship expeditions of Armenia's archaeological community in the post-war period.[114] The idea of its reconstruction was brought to the forefront at the congress of Transcaucasian archaeologists and historians in Yerevan in 1956 presided by Hovsep Orbeli.[104] In December 1968,[101] that the Soviet Armenian government officially approved the reconstruction plan of the temple and a group led by Sahinian began reconstruction works in January 1969.[115] Reconstruction was largely completed by mid-1975,[116] almost 300 years after it was destroyed in an earthquake.[34][117]
The structure was rebuilt using its original stones, a technique known as anastylosis.[90][118] Wilkinson noted that anastylosis "proved relatively straight-forward" as "so much of it had survived."[90] The surviving pieces comprised about a third of the reconstruction, while two-thirds of new materials, which, of the same variety and color, was obtained from a local quarry;[119] along with basalt from Parakar.[120] Stonecutting with power saw and by hand was done onsite.[119][113] Missing pieces were filled with unornamented stones[113][95] to provide visual differentiation between the old and the new,[113] making the reconstruction "quite recognizable to a trained eye."[121] Most of the Ionic capitals had been largely preserved in their entirety, with only two heavily weathered one being replaced with new stone.[110][p][q] Only 40% of the column shafts had been preserved, with only two surviving completely, which were placed at the northern façade.[110]
Its "re-erection and partial reconstruction"[113] has been mostly well received by scholars,[r] but has not been without criticism.[s] Henry A. Judd, Chief Historical Architect of the National Park Service who visited in 1974, praised the lack of attempt at "fakery or antiquing" as an "admirable approach".[119]Bagrat Ulubabyan wrote that the reconstruction was costly and involved a group of skilled craftsmen, the most advanced modern techniques in architecture and the best construction materials.[19] Ulubabyan added that none of the original architectural or artistic merits of the temple were compromised in the process.[19]
It follows the general style of classicalAncient Greek architecture and has been described as Greek, Roman, Greco-Roman, or Hellenistic.[130]Natalie Kampen noted that it "shares a Graeco-Roman vocabulary with the use of basalt rather than marble."[15]Toros Toramanian stressed the singularity of the temple as a Roman-style building in the Armenian Highlands and noted that it "essentially had no influence on contemporary or subsequent Armenian architecture."[131]Sirarpie Der Nersessian argued that the temple, of a Roman type, "lies outside the line of development of Armenian architecture."[132] Fetvadjian described it as "of pure Roman style."[41]
Sahinian, the architect who oversaw its reconstruction, emphasized the local Armenian influence on its architecture, calling it an "Armenian-Hellenic" monument.[133] He further insisted that it resembles the ninth century BC Urartian Musasir temple.[134] Based on a comparative analysis, Sahinian also proposed that the design of the columns have their origins in Asia Minor.[135] Maranci notes that its entablature is similar to that of the temple of Antoninus Pius at Sagalassos in western Asia Minor and to the columns of Attalia.[17]
Kouymjian noted that much of its "decorative vocabulary", and classical architecture in general, "finds its way into Armenian church architecture during the formative period (pre-650)."[142] Lang pointed to the use of patterns found at Garni on the carved stone friezes of Soviet-era public buildings and apartment blocks in Yerevan and elsewhere.[143]
Exterior
The temple is constructed of locally quarried grey to bluish[109]basalt,[144][14] assembled without the use of mortar.[4][17] Instead, the blocks, many weighing up to 5 tons,[109] are bound together by iron and bronze clamps.[17] It is a peripteros, composed of a colonnaded portico (pronaos) and an open[20]cella (naos), erected on an elevated podium (base).[144] The podium, measuring 15.7 by 11.5 m (52 by 38 ft) and standing 2.8–3 m (9 ft 2 in – 9 ft 10 in) above ground,[3][35] is supported by a total of twenty-four Ionic order columns, each 6.54 m (21.5 ft) high: six in the front and back, and eight on the sides (with the corner columns counted twice).[144][130] The structure rises 10.7 metres (35 ft),[a] comparable to a four-story building.[109]
Unlike typical temples, its facade is oriented north—not east.[145][47] There is a 8–8.5 m (26–28 ft) wide stairway on the northern side leading to the chamber.[3][35] It consists of nine steep steps,[146] each measuring 30 cm (12 in) in height—approximately twice the average step height.[147] Tananyan proposes that ascending these steps compels individuals to feel humbled and exert physical effort to reach the altar.[148] On both sides of the stairway, there are roughly square pedestals. Sculpted on both of these pedestals is Atlas, the Greek mythological Titan who bore the weight of the earth, seemingly attempting to support the entire temple on its shoulders. Originally, it is assumed that these pedestals served the purpose of holding up altars, sacrificial tables.[148]
The exterior of the temple is richly decorated. The triangular pediment contains sculptures of plants and geometrical figures.[148] The frieze depicts a continuous line of acanthus. Furthermore, there are ornaments on the capital, architrave, and soffit. The stones in the front cornice have projecting sculptures of lion heads.[38]Sirarpie Der Nersessian argued that its "rich acanthus scrolls, with interposed lion masks and occasional palmettes, the fine Ionic and acanthus capitals, the other floral and geometric ornaments, are typical of the contemporary monuments of Asia Minor."[149]
Ground plan
Front view
Fragment of frieze
The cella
Cella
The cella of the temple is 7.13 m (23.4 ft) high, 7.98 m (26.2 ft) long, and 5.05 m (16.6 ft) wide.[148] It covers an area of 40.3 m2 (434 sq ft).[38] Due to its small size, it has been proposed that a statue once stood inside and ceremonies were held outside.[38] The cella is lit from two sources: the disproportionately large entrance of 2.29 by 4.68 metres (7 ft 6 in by 15 ft 4 in) and the opening in the roof of 1.74 by 1.26 metres (5.7 by 4.1 ft).[150]
Significance
It is the sole standing Greco-Roman colonnaded building in Armenia (and the entire former Soviet Union),[c] and is, therefore, regarded as the most important monument of pre-Christian and ancient Armenia.[3][153]Malcolm Colledge identified it as one of the most distant Ionic structures—along with those on Failaka Island in Kuwait and the Jandial temple in Taxila, Pakistan.[154]Antony Eastmond named it "the easternmost building of the Graeco-Roman world".[6]Giusto Traina noted that its Greco-Roman architecture "gives the impression of standing in an outpost of Western civilization", thus fueling Armenian national pride far more than the glories of Tigranes the Great.[126]
Traina suggested that its reconstruction was motivated by the desire of Soviet Armenian archaeologists to emphasize that the grandeur of Armenia did not begin with Christianity.[126] Along with the Urartian site of Erebuni, its reconstruction was heavily propagated by the Communist leaders of Armenia.[155][5][156] Garni, like Erebuni, was reconstructed during a period of national revival in Soviet Armenia in the 1960s and became a site of national pride, with the restored monument transformed into a backdrop for festivities and cultural performances.[157]Adam T. Smith noted that the restoration of Erebuni and the reconstruction of Garni "both bolstered Soviet programs of national memorialization" and were "allowed for the development of forms of 'tourist patriotism' that highlighted the accomplishments of a nation even as they studiously avoided providing a rallying point for nationalism."[114]
Vardavar, a popular summer festival of pre-Christian origin, being celebrated near the temple in 2014
By the mid-20th century, even before its reconstruction, it had already become a major tourist destination,[162][163][164] attracting tens of thousands of visitors by the early 1970s.[165] Today, it remains one of Armenia's most visited sites, along with the nearby medieval monastery of Geghard.[166][167] Many visitors choose to visit both locations, collectively known as Garni–Geghard, on a day trip from Yerevan.[168][169] Some 200,000 people visited the temple in 2013.[170] The number nearly doubled by 2019, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, when Garni received almost 390,000 visitors, including 250,000 Armenians and 137,400 foreigners.[171]
Since 1990,[180] the temple has been the central shrine[181][182] of the small number of followers of Armenian neopaganism (close to Zoroastrianism) who hold annual ceremonies at the temple,[183] especially on March 21—the pagan New Year.[180][184] On that day, which coincides with Nowruz, the Iranian New Year, Armenian neopagans celebrate the birthday of the god of fire, Vahagn.[184] Celebrations by neopagans are also held during the summer festival of Vardavar, which has pre-Christian (pagan) origins.[185][186] Neopagans celebrated the "return" of Satala Aphrodite, attributed to Anahit, at the temple in September 2024 when the bronze head was brought to Armenia for temporary exhibition.[187]
Preservation
The temple and the fortress are part of the Garni Historical and Cultural Museum Reserve, which occupies 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres) and is supervised by the Service for the Protection of Historical Environment and Cultural Museum Reservations, an agency of the Armenian Ministry of Culture.[170] The government-approved list of historical and cultural monuments includes 11 objects within the site.[13] In a 2006 survey the state of conservation of Garni was rated by over three-quarters of the visitors as "good" or "very good".[169] In 2011 UNESCOawarded the Museum-Reservation of Garni the Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguarding and Management of Cultural Landscapes for "measures taken to preserve its cultural vestiges, and the emphasis placed on efforts to interpret and open the site for national and international visitors."[188]
In September 2014, a Russian tourist spray painted on the temple,[189][190] which was cleaned days later[191] and the tourist was fined.[192][193] In September 2021, a private wedding ceremony took place at the site causing much controversy.[194] The site was closed for visitors that day.[195][196][197]
Notable events
The square in front of the temple has been occasionally used as a venue for concerts:
On July 14, 2019, Armenia's National Chamber Orchestra performed a concert in front of the temple dedicated to the 150th anniversaries of Komitas and Hovhannes Tumanyan.[203]
The temple and Tiridates' Greek inscription are portrayed in a mural crafted by Van Khachatur in 1959, inside the Matenadaran in Yerevan, symbolizing Armenia's Hellenistic period.[208][209]
A 1972 painting by Gabriel Gyurjian depicts the temple with an idealized reconstruction of the fortress walls.[210][211][v]
In the 2002 film Herostratus, a U.S.-Armenia co-production, director Ruben Kochar made "great, atmospheric use of unique locations unfamiliar to Western audiences," including Garni.[219]
American comedian Conan O'Brien and his assistant Sona Movsesian filmed part of an episode dancing at the temple during their visit in October 2015.[227] It aired on his late-night talk show on November 17, 2015, and scored 1.3 million viewers.[228][229]
In episode 6 ("Let the Good Times Roll") of the American reality show The Amazing Race 28, first aired on April 1, 2016,[230] the contestants make a pit stop at the temple.[231]
^Armenian: Գառնիի տաճար, Gaṙnii tač̣ar;[3][4] often called Գառնիի or Գառնու հեթանոսական տաճար, Gaṙnii or Gaṙnu het'anosakan tač̣ar, lit.'pagan temple of Garni', sometimes translated as "heathen" instead of "pagan".[5]
Adam T. Smith: "the only Greco-Roman colonnaded building anywhere in the Soviet Union"[2]
Dickran Kouymjian: "...has the distinction of being the only Greco-Roman temple standing above ground in the entire Soviet Union."[141]
Arkhitektura SSSR: "the only fully restored monument of ancient architecture in our country—Garni."[125]
A U.S. historic preservation team, 1974: "The structure [...] is claimed to be the USSR's best preserved memorial of antiquity."[113]
before the reconstruction:
Hakob Manandian: "Certainly, this is the only architectural monument of the Hellenistic era throughout the entire Soviet Union."[151]
Kamilla Trever: "...its temple, the like of which we do not yet know on the territory of our Union."[152]
Aleksandr Mongait: "the best-preserved ancient temple in the territory of the Soviet Union".[25]
^Armenian: Գառնիի or Գառնու ամրոց, Gařnii or Gařnu amrots
^"...now reconstructed as a temple, though this identification has been challenged."[16]
^It is nearly universally accepted in mainstream Armenian historiography.[18][19][20][21][22][3]Brady Kiesling stated that this view has been accepted by some scholars,[23] while according to Zhores Khachatryan, who accepted the dating, wrote that most scholars agree with it.[24]Aleksandr Mongait wrote in 1955: "The majority of scholars tend to consider the Garni temple as a construction of King Trdat I, dating back to the 1st century AD."[25] Khatchadourian wrote that it is "most commonly regarded as a temple to the god Mihr or Mithras, built in the late first century C.E."[14]
^The inscription is "on a block of basalt 165 cm long, 50 cm high, and 79–80 cm thick; the letters are about 5 x 5.5 cm in size."[8] It was discovered by Martiros Saryan in July 1945 at the Garni cemetery, recently brought from a nearby water mill.[26][27] It is now located within the fortress.
^"most commonly regarded as a temple to the god Mihr or Mithras"[14]
^The traditional date is 301 AD,[52] but the "scholarly consensus is to prefer c. 314."[53]
"The monuments of Garni are the only vestiges of the pagan architecture of Armenia known to us. [...] The most important ruins are those of the temple"[55]
"...all pagan cultic structures (except the temple of Garni) were mercilessly destroyed..."[56]
"Armenia's only remaining pagan temple, at Garni"[57]
"...հեթանոս հայության ճարտարապետական ժառանգությունից պահպանված միակ հիշատակարանը" ["...the only surviving monument of the pagan Armenian architectural heritage"][58]
"The obliteration of pagan vestiges was so complete that almost no architectural remains or temple records have survived ... The only exception is the Temple of Garni"[54]
^19th century European visitors Robert Ker Porter and DuBois de Montpereux attested that the site was called "Takh Terdat" or "Tackt-i-Tiridate".[70][14] Zakaria Kanakertsi called it Trdakert (from Trdatakert meaning "built by Tiridates").[71][72]
^Entitled: «Ողբանք ի վերայ թախթին Տրդատայ թագաւորին».[74][75] Translated into English by Agop Jack Hacikyan et al in 2002.[76]
^A well-preserved capital, gifted by Soviet Armenia to the Hermitage Museum in 1940 was replaced with a replica, while the original remained in Saint Petersburg.[110]
^Of the 24 plinths of the columns, ten had been preserved almost completely, eight were partly preserved (between a third and two-thirds), while six had survived in small fragments alone. The latter were replaced with new stone from the Parakar mine.[122]
^John A. C. Greppin: "quite an impressive job"[116] Yves Thoraval: "perfectly restored"[123] Jean-Michel Thierry: "very well restored"[20] Michael Greenhalgh: "almost perfect reconstruction"[124] In 1988, Soviet archaeologists noted that, although there was once debate over whether the structure should be seen as an 'authentic monument' or a 'modern replica,' it has since gained acceptance and legitimacy in contemporary culture and scholarly circles as a genuine historical monument.[125]
^Giusto Traina suggested that the reconstruction was done à la hussarde—in a hasty or rough manner.[126]Taline Ter Minassian said it was excessively renovated (abusivement rénové),[127] but conceded that only a true specialist in restoration techniques can pass judgment on the anastylosis carried out at Garni.[128]
^France's Culture Minister Rima Abdul Malak announced the twinning of Garni with the Maison carrée during her 2023 visit to Armenia.[138]
^ abSmith, Adam T. (2012). "'Yerevan, My Ancient Erebuni': Archaeological Repertoires, Public Assemblages, and the Manufacture of a (Post-)Soviet Nation". In Charles W. Hartley; G. Bike Yazicioğlu; Adam T. Smith (eds.). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN978-1-107-01652-1. the unique temple-tomb at Garni, just east of Yerevan – the only Greco-Roman colonnaded building anywhere in the Soviet Union.
^ abHakobian, T. Kh.; Melik-Bakhshian, St. T.[in Armenian]; Barseghian, H. Kh.[in Armenian] (1986). "Գառնիի տաճար [Temple of Garni]". Հայաստանի և հարակից շրջանների տեղանունների բառարան [Dictionary of Toponyms of Armenia and Surrounding Regions] Volume I (in Armenian). Yerevan University Press. p. 704.
^ abDemirchian, K. S. (1984). Soviet Armenia. Moscow: Progress Publishers. pp. 71-72. Many outstanding monuments of Armenian architecture are undergoing restoration work. A case in point is the work on restoration of the heathen temple of the first century in Garni.
^ abGarsoïan, Nina (1997). "Armenia". In Meyers, Eric M. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Volume 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 202-207.
^Armen, Garbis (1987). "A Study in Proportions in Armenian Church Architecture"(PDF). The Armenian Review. 40 (2–158): 60. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2024-09-10. Built by Roman masons in 77 ad as a conciliatory gesture to Armenia, this temple survived until 1679 and probably influenced some Armenian architects with its harmonious proportions.
^Eremian, S. T., ed. (1971). Հայ Ժողովրդի Պատմություն, Հ. 1 [History of the Armenian People Vol. 1] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian SSR Academy of Sciences. p. 925. 77թ.—Գառնի ամրոցի և տաճարի շինարարության ավարտը։ [77—The completion of the construction of the Garni fortress and the temple.]
^ abcdef"Garni: The Temple to Mythra". armenianheritage.org. Armenian Monuments Awareness Project (via ICOMOS Armenia). Archived from the original on 29 January 2022.
^ ab"On the Armeno-Iranian Roots of Mithraism", originally published in Studies in Mithraism, J. Hinnells, ed., Rome: Bretschneider, 1994, p. 188; reproduced in Russell, James R. (2004). Armenian and Iranian Studies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 558.
^Lightfoot, C. S. (2005). "Armenia and the eastern marches". The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12: The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337 (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 485–486. ISBN978-0-521-30199-2.
^"Carmina Vahagni", originally published in Acta Antiqua 32.3-4, Budapest, 1989, p. 319; reproduced in Russell, James R. (2004). Armenian and Iranian Studies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 359.
^Morier, James (1818). A second journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, to Constantinople, between the year 1810 and 1816. London: Longman. p. 339–340.
^Romanov, Konstantin K.[in Russian] (1934). "Развалины храма Римского типа в Баш-Гарни [Ruins of Roman-type temple in Bash-Garni]". Izvestiya GAIMK (Proceedings of the State Academy of the History of Material Culture) (in Russian) (100): 635–654.
^ abcdefA Report by the US Historic Preservation Team of the US-USSR Joint Working Group on the Enhancement of the Urban Environment, May 25-June 14, 1974. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior. 1975. p. 74-75.
^ abcJudd, Henry A. (1975). "Techniques and Administration of Restoration". A Report by the US Historic Preservation Team of the US-USSR Joint Working Group on the Enhancement of the Urban Environment, May 25-June 14, 1974. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior. p. 40.
^Thoraval, Yves[in French] (December 1981). "A Erevan: la colline du souvenir"(PDF). Différences (in French) (6). MRAP: 32. ISSN0247-9095. ...le temple hellénique de Garni (1er siècle), parfaitement restauré après avoir été détruit par un séisme au XVII* siècle, le seul vestige grec entièrement conservé en URSS
^Greenhalgh, Michael (2012). Constantinople to Córdoba: dismantling ancient architecture in the East, North Africa and Islamic Spain. Leiden: Brill. p. 10. ISBN978-90-04-21246-6.
^ abSchmidt, Joël[in French] (2004). Roman Mythology. Grange Books. p. 88. ISBN978-1-84013-689-0. The ancient temple in Garni, with its harmonious, human-sized proportions, is quite similar to the "Square Houses" in Nîmes and Vienne, France, like so many others in the Roman empire dedicated to Augustus, who restored Roman religion.
^Etudes soviétiques, (1968), issues 238-249, p. 79. "L'antique temple de Garni (1er siècle) ressemblant au temple de Nîmes (France) est l'unique monument d'origine hellénique conservé sur le territoire de l'U.R.S.S."
^McNeill, William H. (May 1972). "Journey from Common Sense: Notes of a conference on communication with extraterrestrial intelligence, Byurakan, Armenia, September, 1971". University of Chicago Magazine. 64 (5): 10.
^Kouymjian, Dickran (1994). Ajamian, S.; Stone, M. E. (eds.). Text and Context: Studies in the Armenian New Testament: Papers Presented to the Conference on the Armenian New Testament, May 22-28, 1992. Atlanta: Scholars Press. p. 60. ISBN0-7885-0033-3.
^ abcArakelyan, Babken (1968). "Excavations at Garni, 1949–1950". In Alekseyev, Valery (ed.). Contributions to the archaeology of Armenia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. p. 22. The temple is peripteral, built on a high podium, with 24 Ionic columns, 6 in front and back and 8 at each side; the corner columns are listed twice. It is constructed of gray basalt quarried at Garni.
^Stokes, Jamie, ed. (2009). "Armenians". Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Infobase Publishing. p. 62. ISBN978-1-4381-2676-0. Despite the dearth of surviving pre-Christian architecture, several sites have allowed archaeologists to learn something about the general pattern of pre-Christian building in Armenia. The most important of these is the site at Garni...
^Colledge, Malcolm A. R. (1977). Parthian Art. London: Elek. p. 69. ISBN0-236-40085-1. The more popular Ionic order [...] In a comparatively pure and functional form it was used over four centuries in places as distant as Faïlaka, Taxila and Roman Garni in Armenia...
^Marouti, Andreh (2018). "Preservation of the architectural heritage of Armenia"(PhD thesis). Polytechnic University of Milan. pp. 235–236. In accordance with Soviet ideologies, there was a prevalent interest in pre-Christian archaeological heritage. The reconstruction of Garni, a pagan temple and the preservation project of Erebuni, the Urartu citadel, with great propaganda are a testimony to it.
^Stepanian, G.[in Armenian] (1946). "Մեր ճարտարապետության կոթողները. Գեղարդ [The Monuments of Our Architecture: Geghard]"(PDF). Sovetakan Hayastan Monthly (in Armenian) (3). Yerevan: Armenian SSR Committee for Cultural Relations with the Armenians Abroad: 35–39. ISSN0131-6834. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2024-08-30. Այժմ էլ Գեղարդն ու Գառնին մնում են Սովետական Հայաստանի ամենաուշագրավ ու հոյակապ հուշարձանները, մնում են մեր աշխատավորության, հատկապես տուրիստական կազմակերպությունների ամենասիրած վայրերը:
^ ab"Ամանորը և Վահագնի ծնունդը՝ մարտի 21-ին". Aravot (in Armenian). 19 March 2011. Արորդիների ուխտը 1990–ից ի վեր Ամանորն ավանդաբար տոնում է Գառնիի տաճարում: Այս տարի նույնպես Ամանորի ծիսակատարությունը կսկսվի մարտի 21-ի կեսօրին՝ Գառնիում: [The brotherhood of Arordis has traditionally celebrated the New Year at the temple of Garni since the 1990s. This year, too, the New Year ceremony will begin on the afternoon of March 21 at Garni.]
^"Գյուրջյան Գաբրիել Միքայելի". gallery.am (in Armenian). National Gallery of Armenia. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Ստեղծագործական կայնքի վերջին շրջանում Գ.Գյուրջյանը ստեղծել է մի շարք պատմական բնանկարներ «Դվին», «Գառնի տաճար», «Էրեբունիի շինարարությունը», որոնք ուշագրավ են հայ ժողովրդի պատմական անցյալի ու միջավայրի խորը զգացողությամբ:
^Sargsian, M. (1973). ""Գառնի""(PDF). Sovetakan Hayastan Monthly (in Armenian) (3). Yerevan: Armenian SSR Committee for Cultural Relations with the Armenians Abroad: 24. ISSN0131-6834.
Sahinian, Alexander (1983). Գառնիի անտիկ կառույցների ճարտարապետությունը [Architecture of antique constructions of Garni] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian SSR Academy of Sciences Publishing.
Ter Minassian, Taline[in French] (2013). "La restauration soviétique du temple antique de Garni (Arménie) : un paradigme patrimonial? [The Soviet restoration of the ancient temple of Garni (Armenia): a heritage paradigm?]". Patrimoine & Architecture dans les États post-soviétiques [Heritage & Architecture in Post-Soviet states] (in French). Presses Universitaires de Rennes. pp. 25–43. ISBN9782753526426.
General books
Canepa, Matthew P. (2018). The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE. Oakland: University of California Press. pp. 115-118. ISBN978-0-520-29003-7.
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