Emperor at home, king abroad

Emperor at home, king abroad
Chinese name
Chinese外王内帝
Literal meaningexternally wáng, internally dì
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinwài wáng nèi dì
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabetNgoại Vương Nội Đế
Chữ Hán外王內帝
Korean name
Hangul외왕내제
Hanja外王內帝
Japanese name
Kanji外王内帝
Hiraganaがいおうないてい

Emperor at home, king abroad was a system of conducting relations between states within the Chinese cultural sphere. Rulers of lesser regimes would adopt the title of emperor (皇帝; or other equivalents) and/or other imperial titles domestically, and adopt the title of king (王; or other equivalents) when dealing with the dominant Chinese regime. Instead of using the styles Imperial Majesty and Majesty (陛下), rulers of lesser realms were styled as Highness (殿下).[citation needed] This system was applicable to Japan, Korea and Vietnam, as well as less powerful Chinese states, among others.

As China was a hegemonic power in East Asia for a large part of history, surrounding states were compelled to pay tribute to Chinese emperors in exchange for peace and political legitimacy. In this system, lesser regimes accepted the suzerainty of the dominant Chinese power and acknowledged the Chinese emperor as their nominal overlord. Since Chinese emperors claimed to be the Son of Heaven and held supremacy over all under Heaven, rulers of lesser regimes were to use titles subordinate to emperor. The same doctrine also maintained that there could only be one emperor at any given time.

Origin

When the Qin dynasty fell, general Zhao Tuo conquered the commanderies of Xiang and Guilin and proclaimed himself "Martial King of Nanyue" (南越武王; Nányuè Wǔ wáng) and in 196 BCE he was recognized "King of Nanyue" (南越王; Nányuè wáng) after Liu Bang became emperor and founded the Han dynasty. After Liu Bang's death, his officials petitioned his widow Empress Lü to forbid trade in iron between Nanyue and Han; upon hearing the news, Zhao proclaimed himself "Martial Emperor of Nanyue" (南越武帝; Nányuè wǔ dì), on par with the Han emperors.[1][2]

Zhao's troops raided the neighboring Changsha Kingdom, which was part of the Han Empire, before returning to Nanyue. In 181 BCE, Empress Lü dispatched general Zhou Zao to lead troops against Nanyue. However, Zhou's troops fell ill because of the heat and dampness and thus failed to cross the mountains to enter Nanyue; later, they were recalled in 180 BCE after Empress Lü's death. Zhao took the opportunity to menace and bribe the leaders of the Minyue, the Western Ouyue, and the Luoyue into submission.[a] Zhao then stopped sending envoys to the Han court.[1][5]

In response, Emperor Wen of Han sent Lu Jia to reprimand Zhao. Frightened, Zhao wrote a letter of apology, humbled himself as a feudal subject of the Han Emperor, promised to offer tributes, and publicly announced in Nanyue that he would relinquish imperial title and practices. However, Zhao still secretly designated himself as "Emperor" (帝; dì) inside Nanyue and only used titles appropriate for a tributary feudal lord like "king" (王; wáng) when sending envoys to the Son of Heaven.[1][6]

Korea

See also: Korean imperial titles

The rulers of Balhae used imperial titles, such as Seongwang (성왕; 聖王; lit. "Holy King") and Hwangsang (황상; 皇上; lit. "Emperor"), and had independent era names.[7][8]

In 933, King Taejo of Goryeo was conferred the title of King of Goryeo (高麗國王) by the Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang. Prior to its capitulation to the Yuan dynasty, imperial designations and terminology were widely used by the Goryeo dynasty domestically. Its rulers claimed to be the Son of Heaven, as did Chinese emperors. King Gyeongsun of Silla addressed King Taejo of Goryeo as the Son of Heaven when he surrendered. Even though the Song dynasty, the Liao dynasty and the Jin dynasty were well-informed of Goryeo's use of imperial titles, all three Chinese dynasties tolerated such practice.

The Goryeo dynasty later became a semi-autonomous region of the Yuan dynasty, bringing an end to its domestic imperial system. Its rulers bore the title king and were prohibited from having temple names which were reserved specifically for the Yuan emperors. In 1356, King Gongmin of Goryeo declared independence from the Yuan dynasty.[9]

In 1392, King Taejo of Joseon overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and founded the Joseon dynasty. He was bestowed the title King of Joseon (朝鮮國王) by the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Both domestically and externally, Joseon monarchs held the title of king, unlike the domestic claim of imperial titles before Goryeo's submission to the Yuan dynasty.[10]

Vietnam

In 544, Lý Bôn established the Early Lý dynasty and proclaimed himself the Emperor of Vạn Xuân (萬春帝).

In 968, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh founded the Đinh dynasty and declared himself as emperor, abolishing the old title of Jinghaijun Jiedushi (靜海軍節度使), a title of Chinese regional military commander. The Emperor Taizu of Song later bestowed the title King of Jiaozhi Prefecture to Đinh Bộ Lĩnh.[11]: 285, 287 

In 986, Lê Hoàn was bestowed the title of Jinghaijun Jiedushi when the emissary of the Song dynasty visited. In 988, Lê Hoàn was promoted to Proxy Grand Commandant (檢校太尉); in 993 to Prince of Jiaozhi Commandery (交趾郡王); and finally in 997 his title was promoted to the King of Nanping (南平王).[12][13]

In 1010, Lý Thái Tổ established the Lý dynasty and was granted the title Prince of Jiaozhi by the Emperor Zhenzong of Song. In 1174, Lý Anh Tông was bestowed the title King of Annan (安南國王); "Annan" or "An Nam", meaning "the Pacified South", was the name of Vietnam during Chinese rule.[14][15][16] Domestically, rulers of the Lý dynasty maintained the use of the title emperor.

Upon proclaiming the Later Lê dynasty, Lê Thái Tổ claimed kingship with the title Đại Vương (大王).[citation needed] It was not until the reign of Lê Thánh Tông did Vietnamese rulers reclaimed imperial titles. The system continued to be used until the end of the dynasty itself, as all rulers claimed imperial status domestically and reverted to royal rank when dealing with China.

The Gia Long Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty was conferred the title King of Việt Nam (越南國王) by the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty. While the Nguyễn dynasty accepted Chinese suzerainty and adopted the title of king when dealing with the Qing dynasty, it entered into foreign relations with other states as Emperor of Đại Việt Nam (大越南皇帝) and later as Emperor of Đại Nam (大南皇帝).[citation needed] Domestically, Nguyễn monarchs also used the title emperor and referred to its realm as the "southern dynasty" (in relation to the Qing dynasty, the "northern dynasty"), implying an equal status with China.

Japan

Toyotomi Hideyoshi was triggered to invade Korea for the second time, after the Wanli Emperor of the Ming dynasty referred to him as the King of Japan.

Chinese emperors originally referred to Japanese rulers as the King of Wa (倭王), while they were called kimi or ōkimi in Japan. Some of the rulers, notably the five kings of Wa, accepted Chinese suzerainty.

During the Sui dynasty, the Japanese diplomat Ono no Imoko delivered a letter by Prince Shōtoku to the Emperor Yang of Sui which claimed the Empress Suiko as "the Son of Heaven where the sun rises", implying an equal status between the Japanese and Chinese monarchs. The Emperor Yang of Sui was angered by such a claim. Since then, the Emperor of Japan has started to adopt the imperial title of Tennō (天皇, "Heavenly Emperor") both domestically and externally, and the title king (國王) was sometimes used for trade with China by shoguns, who held de facto power in Japan. China did not officially allow Japanese emperors to use the title tennō, although it did little to compel the Japanese rulers into reverting to lesser titles.[17]

During the Tang dynasty, Japanese rulers were conferred the title King of Japan (日本國王).[18] From 630 to 838 Japan sent a total of 19 envoys to the Tang dynasty to stimulate cultural learning and exchange.

During the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan demanded the submission of the King of Japan, referring to the Japanese emperor. Japan rejected this demand, which resulted in the Mongol invasions of Japan.

During the Nanboku-chō period of Japan, Prince Kaneyoshi refused to accept the title of king granted by China, and killed seven Chinese ambassadors in retaliation.

The shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu accepted the title King of Japan bestowed by the Yongle Emperor due to his desire to establish trade relations with the Ming dynasty.[19][20][21]

During the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate, Tokugawa Hidetada changed the title of king to taikun (大君), as a sign of respect to the Japanese emperor. Thereafter, Tokugawa Ienobu switched the title back to king, only to be changed once again to taikun by Tokugawa Yoshimune.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Records of the Outer Territory of Jiao Region (交州外域記) and Records of the Taikang Era of the Jin (晉太康記) (both quoted in Commentary on the Water Classic (水經注)) and Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Historical Annals of Đại Việt) (大越史記全書) also mentioned Zhao's military conquest of Âu Lạc.[3][4]

References

  1. ^ a b c Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, "Vol. 113: Account of Nanyue"
  2. ^ Sima Qian (author), Burton Watson (translator). (1961). Records Of The Grand Historian Of China, Vol. II. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 240
  3. ^ Shuijing zhu "Vol. 37, Section Yin river". For an English translation see Chang, Yufen (2022). "Academic Dependency Theory and the Politics of Agency in Area Studies: The Case of Anglophone Vietnamese Studies from the 1960s to the 2010s". Journal of Historical Sociology. 35 (1): p. 49 of pp. 37–54.
  4. ^ Ngô Sĩ Liên et al. ĐVSKTT "Peripheral Records, Vol. 1, Records of Thục, King An Dương"
  5. ^ Sima Qian (author), Watson, Burton (translator) (1961), p. 241
  6. ^ Sima Qian (author), Watson, Burton (translator) (1961), p. 241-242
  7. ^ "발해(渤海)". Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  8. ^ Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 88. ISBN 9780253000248. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  9. ^ Robinson, David M. (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. Harvard University Press. p. 128. ISBN 9780674036086. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  10. ^ Em, Henry H. (2013), The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea, Duke University Press, p. 35, ISBN 978-0-8223-5372-0
  11. ^ Taylor, Keith Weller (1983). The Birth of the Vietnam. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520074170.
  12. ^ Annals of Great Yue (大越史記全書)
  13. ^ Jiaozhi Book of History of Song, (宋史·交趾傳)
  14. ^ Hai, Do Thanh (December 2016). Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality. ISBN 9781317398202.
  15. ^ Kang, David C. (2010-01-22). China Rising: Peace, Power, and Order in East Asia. ISBN 9780231141895.
  16. ^ Mair, Victor H.; Kelley, Liam (2015-08-06). Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours. ISBN 9789814620536.
  17. ^ Boscaro, Adriana; Gatti, Franco; Raveri, Massimo, eds. (2003). Rethinking Japan: Social Sciences, Ideology and Thought. Vol. II. Japan Library Limited. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-904404-79-1.
  18. ^ 唐丞相曲江張先生文集-敕日本國王書.
  19. ^ Correspondent, Walter SimJapan (2019-04-30). "Emperor Akihito steps down, marking the end of three-decade Heisei era". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 2023-09-08. {{cite news}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  20. ^ Shillony, Ben-Ami (2008). The Emperors of Modern Japan. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-16822-0.
  21. ^ Seagrave, Sterling; Seagrave, Peggy (2001-08-14). The Yamato Dynasty: The Secret History of Japan's Imperial Family. Crown. ISBN 978-0-7679-0497-1.