C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)

For other comets discovered by the Siding Spring Observatory, see Comet Siding Spring (disambiguation).

C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)
Comet Siding Spring as seen by Hubble on 11 March 2014
Discovery[1]
Discovered bySiding Spring Observatory
0.5-m Schmidt (E12)
Discovery date3 January 2013
Orbital characteristics[2][3][4]
Epoch30 October 2014 (JD 2456960.5)
Observation arc3.53 years
Number of
observations		449
Orbit typeOort cloud
Aphelion52000 AU (inbound)
13000 AU (outbound)
Perihelion1.39875 AU (q)
Eccentricity1.00043
Orbital periodseveral million years inbound
(Barycentric solution for epoch 1950)
~500000 years outbound
(Barycentric solution for epoch 2050)
Inclination129.033°
300.999°
Argument of
periapsis		2.449°
Last perihelion25 October 2014
TJupiter–0.919
Earth MOID0.3836 AU
Jupiter MOID3.6748 AU
Physical characteristics[2][5][6]
Dimensions~400–700 m (0.25–0.43 mi)
Comet total
magnitude (M1)		8.5
Comet nuclear
magnitude (M2)		12.0

C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) is an Oort cloud comet discovered on 3 January 2013 by Robert H. McNaught at Siding Spring Observatory using the 0.5-meter (20 in) Uppsala Southern Schmidt Telescope.[1][7]

At the time of discovery it was 7.2 AU from the Sun and located in the constellation Lepus. Comet C/2013 A1 probably took millions of years to come from the Oort cloud. After leaving the planetary region of the Solar System, the post-perihelion orbital period (epoch 2050) is estimated to be roughly 1 million years.[4]

C/2013 A1 passed the planet Mars very closely on 19 October 2014, at a distance of 140,496.6 ± 4.0 km (87,300.5 ± 2.5 mi; 0.000939162 ± 2.7×10−8 au).[8] After its discovery, there was thought to be a chance of a collision with Mars, but this possibility was excluded when its orbit was determined with about a 200-day observation arc.[9]

All NASA Mars orbiters—including 2001 Mars Odyssey,[10] Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter[11] and MAVEN[12]—as well as ESA's orbiter, Mars Express,[13] and ISRO's orbiter, the Mars Orbiter Mission,[14] reported a healthy status after the comet flyby on 19 October 2014.[15][16] During the flyby, orbiters around Mars detected thousands of kilograms per hour of comet dust composed of magnesium, iron, sodium, potassium, manganese, nickel, chromium and zinc.[17] In addition, the comet nucleus was determined to be between 400 and 700 meters (0.2 and 0.4 mi),[5][6][17] much smaller than originally assumed. The nucleus rotates once every eight hours.[18]

Discovery

The comet was discovered on 3 January 2013 by professional astronomer Robert McNaught at the Siding Spring Observatory at Coonabarabran NSW Australia and received the official designation C/2013 A1.[1] It was named Siding Spring based on a tradition to identify the observatory that discovered it. Three images were obtained through the use of a CCD camera mounted on the Uppsala Southern Schmidt Telescope with a spherical mirror of 0.5 meters in diameter. Comet Siding Spring had an apparent magnitude of 18.4 to 18.6. At the time of its discovery, it was 7.2 AU (1.08×109 km; 670,000,000 mi) from the Sun.

Precovery images by the Catalina Sky Survey from 8 December 2012 were found quickly and announced with the discovery giving Comet Siding Spring a 29-day observation arc.[1] On 3 March 2013, Pan-STARRS precovery images from 4 October 2012 were announced that extended the observation arc to 148 days.[19]

Comet Siding Spring Mars flyby on 19 October 2014 (artist's concepts)
Orbiters take cover from Comet Siding Spring during Mars flyby
Mars as seen from Comet Siding Spring
Comet Siding Spring as seen from Mars

Encounter with Mars

Animation of C/2013 A1 orbit
  Sun ·   Mercury ·   Venus  ·   Earth  ·   Mars ·   C/2013 A1

Comet Siding Spring passed extremely close to Mars on 19 October 2014 at 18:28 ± 0:01 UTC.[20] Initial observations by Leonid Elenin on 27 February 2013, suggested that it might pass 0.000276 AU (41,300 km; 25,700 mi) from the center of Mars.[21] With an observation arc of 733 days, the nominal pass is 0.000931 AU (139,300 km; 86,500 mi) from the center-point of Mars and the uncertainty region shows that it would not come closer than 0.000927 AU (138,700 km; 86,200 mi).[20]

For comparison, Mars's outer moon Deimos orbits it at a distance of 0.00016 AU (24,000 km; 15,000 mi). Due to the uncertainty region, there was the possibility that it could pass Mars as far away as 0.000934 AU (139,700 km; 86,800 mi). It actually passed by at a distance of 140,496.6 ± 4.0 km (87,300.5 ± 2.5 mi; 0.000939162 ± 2.7×10−8 au),[8] at a relative velocity of 56 km/s (35 mi/s).[20] As seen from Mars, C/2013 A1 peaked at approximately apparent magnitude −6.[22][dubious – discuss]

Comet Siding Spring encounter with Mars, 19 October 2014
Projected position of Comet Siding Spring and its closest approach to Mars
Comet Siding Spring encounter

Predicted effects

C/2013 A1 – four images

The main body of the comet's tail was projected to miss Mars by some 10 Mars diameters.[25] As a result, only higher-than-average-velocity meteoroid dust, ejected earlier in the approach of the comet, allow for impacts on Mars, its moons, and orbiting spacecraft. Dust particles ejected from the nucleus of the comet, at more than double the expected velocity when the comet was 3 AU from the Sun, could reach Mars approximately 43 to 130 min after the closest approach of the comet.[26] There is a possibility for millimeter- to centimeter-size particles released more than 13 AU from the Sun, however, this is considered unlikely,[26] although massive ejections from farther out have been deduced.[27]

In 2013 it was thought possible that Comet Siding Spring would create a meteor shower on Mars or be a threat to the spacecraft in Mars orbit.[28] Studies in 2014 showed the threat to orbiting spacecraft to be minimal.[29] The greatest threat would be about 100 minutes after closest approach.[29] Mars passed about 27,000 km (17,000 mi) from the comet's orbit around 20:10 UT.[30]

The coma of the comet is projected to more than double the amount of hydrogen in the high atmosphere for a period of several tens of hours and to warm it by about 30 K for a few hours—the combination increasing the effect of atmospheric drag on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and MAVEN spacecraft causing a measurable increase in orbital decay because of atmospheric ram pressure.[31] These spacecraft will be approaching Mars to minimum altitudes of 250 km and 150 km and orbital periods of 3 and 4 hours, respectively. The amount of drag cannot be narrowed down greatly until the production rate of the comet is known, but it could be from 1.6 to 40 times normal drag. MAVEN, in particular, also has instruments to observe any changes to the gas composition of the atmosphere. The closer moon of Mars, Phobos, orbits far higher, at a minimum distance of 9,234.42 km (5,738.00 mi),[32] more than 10 times the height of Mars's atmosphere.[33]

Estimates for the diameter of the nucleus have varied from 1 to 50 km (1 to 31 mi),[34][35] but now the nucleus is known to be only approximately 400–700 meters (0.2–0.4 mi) in diameter,[5][6] roughly the diameter of asteroid 2010 XG11 that approached Mars on 29 July 2014.[36] Based on early upper-limit size estimates, the resulting upper-limit energy of a hypothetical impact with Mars was 24 billion megatons.[34][37] The diameter of such a hypothetical impact crater would be roughly ten times the diameter of the comet's nucleus.[34] A 700-meter impactor would create around a 7–10 km (4–6 mi) crater.

The odds of an impact with Mars were 1 in 1250 in March 2013,[38] 1 in 2000 in late March 2013,[35] 1 in 8000 by April 2013,[39] and 1 in 120,000 by 8 April 2013.[40] The 8 April 2013 JPL Small-Body Database 3-sigma solution was the first estimate to show that the minimum approach by Comet Siding Spring would miss Mars.[20][26]

Actual effects

MAVEN detected an intense meteor shower.[18] Comet Siding Spring has a rotation period of approximately 8 hours.[18][clarification needed] Debris from Comet Siding Spring added a temporary, but strong layer of ions to Mars's ionosphere (the first time such a phenomenon has been observed on any planet), and 85 tonnes of cometary dust were vaporized high in Mars's atmosphere. Magnesium, iron, and other metals were observed to have been deposited.[17] An observer on the surface would have seen a few tens of meteors during the plane crossing.[41]

During the flyby of Mars at a proximity of 140,000 km, Comet Siding Spring's magnetic field, generated by its interaction with the solar wind, caused a violent turmoil that lasted for several hours, long after its flyby. Its coma washed over Mars with the dense inner coma, reaching or almost reaching the planet's surface. The cometary magnetic field temporarily merged with and overwhelmed Mars' weak magnetic field.[42]

Observation

Comet Siding Spring as seen by NEOWISE on 16 January 2014

As seen from Earth, on 19 October 2014, Mars was in the constellation Ophiuchus, near globular cluster NGC 6401, and 60 degrees from the Sun. Mars and C/2013 A1 were 1.6 AU (240,000,000 km; 150,000,000 mi) from Earth.[43] As of October 2014, C/2013 A1 had an apparent magnitude of roughly 11 and was the third-brightest comet in the sky at that time.[44][45] At an apparent magnitude of 0.9, Mars was estimated to be about 11,000 times brighter than the diffuse-looking comet with a low-surface brightness.[46] To observe C/2013 A1 visually from Earth would have required a telescope with an optical mirror at least 0.2-meter (8 in) in diameter. By November 2014 the comet had dimmed to magnitude 11.6 and was only around the fifth-brightest comet in the sky.[47]

Mars and Comet Siding Spring were visible to the STEREO-A spacecraft during the 2014 encounter.[48] In orbit around Mars were the spacecraft Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 2001 Mars Odyssey, ESA's Mars Express, MAVEN, and the Indian Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan). The last two missions had arrived less than one month before the closest approach of C/2013 A1 to Mars. All these artificial satellites may have been exposed to potentially damaging particles.[49][50] The level of exposure will not be known for months, but NASA had taken several "precautionary measures" as it prepared to study C/2013 A1.[51] Two key strategies to lessen the risk were to place the orbiters on the opposite side of Mars at the time of the highest risk and to orient the orbiters so that their most vulnerable parts were not in the line of impact.[50] On the ground, the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers obtained images as well. Results from the observations will be discussed during a special session "Comet C/2013 A1 Siding Spring at Mars" at the 2014 AGU Fall Meeting in San Francisco on 18 December 2014.[needs update]

Before comet flyby

Comet Siding Spring passes Mars on 19 October 2014.
Orbiters hide as Comet Siding Spring passes Mars.


MAVEN and Comet Siding Spring encounter Mars.
MAVEN and Comet Siding Spring encountering Mars – fixed-camera view.
Comet Siding Spring – watched by several landers and orbiting spacecraft.


Closest approach of Comet Siding Spring to Mars – maximum and minimum distances noted

During comet flyby

Close encounter of Comet Siding Spring with the planet Mars
(composite image; Hubble ST; 19 October 2014).
  • Images taken by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter of Comet Siding Spring on 19 October 2014
    Images taken by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter of Comet Siding Spring on 19 October 2014
  • Image by the Observatorio de la Asociación Entrerriana de Astronomía from Earth on 19 October 2014
    Image by the Observatorio de la Asociación Entrerriana de Astronomía from Earth on 19 October 2014


  • Images taken by the Opportunity Rover of Comet Siding Spring from the Martian surface on 19 October 2014
    Images taken by the Opportunity Rover of Comet Siding Spring from the Martian surface on 19 October 2014
  • Image taken by the Opportunity Rover of Comet Siding Spring from the Martian surface on 19 October 2014
    Image taken by the Opportunity Rover of Comet Siding Spring from the Martian surface on 19 October 2014
  • Image taken by the Opportunity Rover of Comet Siding Spring from the Martian surface on 19 October 2014
    Image taken by the Opportunity Rover of Comet Siding Spring from the Martian surface on 19 October 2014
The Curiosity rover views Comet C/2013 A1 during flyby on 19 October 2014.

References

  1. ^ a b c d "MPEC 2013-A14 : Comet C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)". IAU Minor Planet Center. 5 January 2013. Archived from the original on 1 March 2013. (CK13A010)
  2. ^ a b "C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) – JPL Small-Body Database Lookup". ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved 12 November 2024.
  3. ^ "MPEC 2014-L52: Observations and Orbits of Comets". IAU Minor Planet Center. 10 June 2014. Archived from the original on 15 June 2014.
  4. ^ a b Horizons output. "Barycentric Osculating Orbital Elements for Comet C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)". Solution using the Solar System Barycenter. Ephemeris Type:Elements and Center:@0 (To be outside planetary region, inbound epoch 1950 and outbound epoch 2050. For epoch 2050-Jan-01 orbit period is "PR= 1.9E+08 / 365.25 days" = ~520,000 years)
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  6. ^ a b c "NASA's Swift Satellite Tallies Water Production of Mars-bound Comet". Swift satellite. NASA. 19 June 2014. Retrieved 20 June 2014.
  7. ^ Kaufmann, Marc (4 August 2014). "A Celestial Traveler Closes on Mars". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
  8. ^ a b Farnocchia, D.; Chesley, S.R.; Micheli, M.; Delamere, W.A.; Heyd, R.S.; Tholen, D.J.; Giorgini, J.D.; Owen, W.M.; Tamppari, L.K. (2016). "High precision comet trajectory estimates: The Mars flyby of C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)". Icarus. 266: 279–287. arXiv:1507.01980. Bibcode:2016Icar..266..279F. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.10.035. ISSN 0019-1035. S2CID 118874989.
  9. ^ "How to determine the orbit of a comet?". esa. 7 March 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2022. It took 44 days of observation to achieve even a semblance of an orbit determination – one that was still all over the place
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  46. ^ Math:
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Observed byIsraelisDate24 Tishrei (Hebrew calendar) Iron Sword War Memorial Day is a national Memorial Day commemorating the fallen victims of the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel on the 22nd of Tishrei 5784, the holiday of Simchat Torah, October 7, 2023, and the soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces who fell during the ensuing Israel–Hamas war. Due to the fact that the 22nd of Tishrei is the holiday of Simchat Torah, and the 23rd of Tishrei is the Isru Chag of Sukkot, the Memorial Day ...

 

 

Gunung es

Gunung es Gunung es (bahasa Inggris: iceberg) adalah suatu bongkahan besar es air tawar yang telah terpecah dari gletser atau ice shelf dan mengambang di perairan terbuka. Karena densitas es (920 kg/m3) lebih rendah dari air laut (1025 kg/m3), umumnya, sekitar 90% volume gunung es berada di bawah permukaan laut, dan bentuk bagian tersebut sulit diperkirakan hanya berdasarkan apa yang tampak di permukaan. Hal ini memunculkan suatu istilah puncak gunung es (tip of the iceberg) yan...

Ulster County, New York

County in New York, United States County in New YorkUlster CountyCountyMohonk Mountain House on Shawangunk Ridge FlagSealLocation within the U.S. state of New YorkNew York's location within the U.S.Coordinates: 41°53′N 74°16′W / 41.89°N 74.26°W / 41.89; -74.26Country United StatesState New YorkFoundedNovember 1, 1683; 340 years ago (1683-11-01)[A]Named forPrince James, Duke of York and Albany and Earl of UlsterSeatKingstonLar...

 

 

1st Marine Raider Battalion (MARSOC)

1st Marine Raider Battalion1st Marine Raider Battalion insigniaActiveOctober 26, 2006; 17 years ago (2006-10-26)- presentBranch United States Marine CorpsTypeSpecial operations forcesPart ofMarine Raider RegimentGarrison/HQCamp Lejeune, North CarolinaCommandersCommanding Officer (June 2019)LtCol Theodore A. Bucierka[1]Military unit For the World War II era 1st Raider Battalion, see Marine Raiders. The 1st Marine Raider Battalion (1st MRB) is a special opera...

 

 

Manitoba Moose

American Hockey League team in Winnipeg, Manitoba Manitoba MooseCityWinnipeg, ManitobaLeagueAmerican Hockey LeagueConferenceWesternDivisionCentralFounded1994 (In the IHL)Home arenaCanada Life CentreColoursPolar Night blue, aviator blue, silver, white       Owner(s)True North Sports & EntertainmentGeneral managerCraig HeisingerHead coachMark MorrisonCaptainJimmy OlignyMediaTSN680 CJOBAHLTV (Internet)AffiliatesWinnipeg Jets (NHL)Norfolk Admirals (ECHL)WebsiteMooseHo...

Mappa di Piri Reis

La mappa di Piri Reis (90 x 63 cm). La mappa di Piri Re'is è un documento cartografico realizzato dall'ammiraglio turco Piri Reìs il 7 aprile 1513. Indice 1 Descrizione 1.1 Il riferimento a Colombo 1.2 Interpretazioni pseudoarcheologiche 2 Note 3 Bibliografia 4 Voci correlate 5 Altri progetti 6 Collegamenti esterni Descrizione La mappa pergamenacea è conservata nella Biblioteca del Palazzo di Topkapı di Istanbul, dove fu rinvenuta nel 1929 durante i lavori di rifacimento per trasformarlo ...

 

 

فرناندو كوستا

هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (أبريل 2019) فرناندو كوستا معلومات شخصية الميلاد 29 أبريل 1985 (39 سنة)  بورتو  الجنسية البرتغال  المدرسة الأم جامعة وين ستيت  الحياة العملية المهنة سباح[1]  ا�...

 

 

List of legendary creatures (H)

Lists of legendary creatures A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Hippocampus drawn from a fresco in Pompeii Hábrók (Nordic) – listed as the best hawk Hadhayosh (Persian) – gigantic land animal Hades (Greek) – Ruler of the Underworld Haetae (Korean) – dog-lion hybrid Hag (Many cultures worldwide) – wise old woman who is usually a malevolent spirit or a disguised goddess Haietlik (Nuu-chah-nulth) – water serpent Halloi (Sanamahism) - natural maiden spirits of cele...

TV4 Guld

Swedish television channel Television channel TV4 GuldCountrySwedenOwnershipOwnerTV4 AB(Telia Company)Sister channelsTV4SjuanTV12TV4 FilmTV4 FaktaTV4 HitsTV4 StarsSF-kanalenTV4 SportkanalenTV4 FotbollTV4 HockeyTV4 MotorTV4 TennisTV4 Sport LiveHistoryLaunchedNovember 3, 2006LinksWebsitewww.tv4.se/guld TV4 Guld is a Swedish television channel devoted to classic programmes such as older television dramas. The channel launched on November 3, simultaneously with its sister channel TV4 Komedi, on s...

 

 

Supercritical fluid

State of matter Not to be confused with superfluidity or supercritical flow. A supercritical fluid (SCF) is any substance at a temperature and pressure above its critical point, where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist, but below the pressure required to compress it into a solid.[1] It can effuse through porous solids like a gas, overcoming the mass transfer limitations that slow liquid transport through such materials. SCFs are superior to gases in their ability to dissolve ...