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Bernard Lazare (French pronunciation: [bɛʁnaʁ lazaʁ]; 14 June 1865, Nîmes – 1 September 1903, Paris) was a French literary critic, political journalist, polemicist, and anarchist. He is known as the first Dreyfusard.

Life

He was born Lazare Marcus Manassé Bernard (he later switched his first name and last name) in Nîmes on 15 June 1865. His bourgeois family was Jewish, although not very religious.^[1]

Lazare's initial contact with symbolists introduced him to anarchism and led to his career in literary criticism. During the Trial of the thirty in 1894, he defended anarchists Jean Grave and Félix Fénéon.^[2]

In the spring of 1894 he published Anti-Semitism, its History and Causes (French: L'Antisémitisme, son histoire et ses causes). The book is considered anti-Semitic by present day standards. According to Lazare Jewish religion and law was partly to blame: "This is in large part the exclusivism, that is, the persisting pride and attachment of Jews to one another...However, the Jew, himself, constitutes only one of many causes for anti-Semitism".^[3]

It was published within a few months of the arrest of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer accused of treason. Having a reputation for combativeness and courage, Bernard Lazare was contacted by Mathieu Dreyfus to help prove his brother's innocence.^[4]

Lazare devoted his time exclusively to the case. Initially, he drafted a pamphlet that framed Dreyfus's trial not as a simple miscarriage of justice, but the action of a specifically anti-Semitic conspiracy. Although this version was not published (at least in part because the family and their lawyer appear to have wanted to downplay the relevance of anti-Semitism to the case), Dreyfus's wrongful conviction became a turning point for Lazare's views on anti-Semitism, particularly regarding how Jews should respond. He began publishing more strident defenses of Jewish people in Parisian newspapers, and, after calling him out by name in Le Voltaire, even fought a duel with his former colleague, anti-Semitic extremist Édouard Drumont. (Neither man was injured.)^[5]

Lazare's pamphlet, Une erreur judiciaire: La vérité sur l’affaire Dreyfus ("A Judicial Error: The Truth about the Dreyfus Affair") was finally published in November 1896 - in Belgium, rather than France, because he feared it would be seized by the French police. In it, Lazare refuted the accusation point by point and demanded the sentence be overturned. This tactic conformed more to the wishes of the Dreyfus family, as the first version of the text was a savage attack on the accusers, ending with repeated use of the phrase "J'accuse", later made famous by Émile Zola.^[5] Despite the change in focus away from anti-Semitism, the pamphlet still argued that this was not simply a judicial mistake, but a deliberate act to frame an innocent man. Lazare may even have meant the comparatively mild title ("Une erreur judiciare") to be ironic.^[6]

The effect was devastating for Lazare, who was ostracized by friends and colleagues from all points of the political spectrum, and widely condemned in the French papers (public opinion at this point was almost universally in favour of Dreyfus's conviction). Despite the fact that the only mention of Dreyfus's Jewishness occurred in a single sentence at the end of the pamphlet - "Let it not be said that, having a Jew before us, justice was forgotten." - newspapers responded with outrage that Lazare was creating an anti-Semitic scandal where none had previously existed. Almost every report on the pamphlet named Lazare as its author, and took pains to draw attention to the fact that he himself was Jewish.^[5] Lazare would later write to Joseph Reinach: "From one day to the next, I became a pariah."^[7]

Lazare published a second, much expanded edition of the pamphlet. Nearly 300 pages long, it contained responses on the Dreyfus case from several handwriting experts.^[8] As it was now obvious that nothing could be gained from downplaying the issue of anti-Semitism, Lazare was free to speak his mind: "It is because he was Jewish that he was arrested, it is because he was Jewish that he was judged, it is because he was Jewish that he was condemned."^[9]

Inspired by his experience with antisemitism during the Dreyfus Affair, Lazare became engaged in the struggle for the emancipation of Jews, and was triumphally received at the First Zionist Congress.^[2] He travelled with Zionist leader Theodor Herzl, the two men sharing a great respect for each other, but he fell out with Herzl after a disagreement over the project whose "tendencies, processes and actions" he disapproved. In 1899 he wrote to Herzl – and by extension to the Zionist Action Committee, "You are bourgeois in thoughts, bourgeois in your feelings, bourgeois in your ideas, bourgeois in your conception of society." Lazare's Zionism was not nationalist, nor advocated the creation of a state, but was rather an ideal of emancipation and of collective organization of the Jewish proletarians.^[10]

He visited Romania in 1900 and 1902, after which he denounced the terrible fate of Romanian Jews in L'Aurore, written in July and August 1900. He also visited Russia where he reported on the dangers facing Jews, but did not have a chance to publish due to illness; and Turkey where he defended the Armenians against persecution.^[2]

Soon Dreyfusards censored him and he could no longer write for L'Aurore after the Rennes trial. He covered the trial anyway and sent his vitriolic accounts to two American journals, The Chicago Record and The North American Review. At the end of his life, he became close to Charles Péguy, and wrote in the Cahiers de la quinzaine.^[2]

Works

Non-fiction

L'Antisémitisme, son histoire et ses causes (tr. as Anti-Semitism, its History and Causes) (1894)
Une erreur judiciaire: La vérité sur l’affaire Dreyfus ("A Judicial Error: The Truth about the Dreyfus Affair") (pamphlet, November 1896)
Bernard Lazare, "France at the Parting of the Ways," North American Review 169, no. 516 (November 1899): 640–60.

Fiction

Le Miroir des Légendes (Alphonse Lemarre, 1892) (tr. as The Mirror of Legends, 2017)
Les Porteurs des Torches (1897)
Les Portes d'ivoire (1898)

References

^ Izrine, Jean-Marc; Davranche, Guillaume (2022-08-27), "LAZARE Bernard [BERNARD Lazare, Marcus, Manassé, dit]", Dictionnaire des anarchistes (in French), Paris: Maitron/Editions de l'Atelier, retrieved 2023-06-17
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Ressusciter Lazare". Le Monde libertaire (in French). 2004-01-29. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17.
^ Brustein, William L.; Roberts, Louisa (2015). The Scialism of Fools: Leftist Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. Lazare argued in his book that Jews, because of their exclusiveness, arrogance, and unsociability, were themselves responsible for anti-Semitism. Lazare blames the Jewish religion and laws for these negative traits. His bool was widely reviewed and is by many accounts a seminal anti-Semitic text. Lazare's authorship of such an anti-Semitic work is ironic, given the role he would soon play in the Dreyfus Affair.
^ Cahm, Eric (1996). The Dreyfus Affair in French Society and Politics. p. 36. doi:10.4324/9781315842639. ISBN 9781317889465.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lockshin, Lauren Gottlieb (2021). "The Dreyfus Affair's Forgotten Hero: Bernard Lazare and the First Modern Fight against Antisemitism". Jewish History. 34 (4): 305–330. doi:10.1007/s10835-021-09389-0. ISSN 0334-701X. S2CID 237846909.
^ Wilson, Nelly (1978). Bernard-Lazare: antisemitism and the problem of Jewish identity in late nineteenth-century France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-521-21802-3.
^ Lockshin, Lauren Gottlieb (2021). "The Dreyfus Affair's Forgotten Hero: Bernard Lazare and the First Modern Fight against Antisemitism". Jewish History. 34 (4): 321. doi:10.1007/s10835-021-09389-0. ISSN 0334-701X. S2CID 237846909.
^ Lazare, Bernard (1897). Une erreur judiciaire: l'affaire Dreyfus. P.-V. Stock.
^ Lockshin, Lauren Gottlieb (2021). "The Dreyfus Affair's Forgotten Hero: Bernard Lazare and the First Modern Fight against Antisemitism". Jewish History. 34 (4): 323. doi:10.1007/s10835-021-09389-0. ISSN 0334-701X. S2CID 237846909.
^ Gabriel Piterberg (2008), The Returns of Zionism: Myths, Politics and Scholarship in Israel, London: Verso, p.10