A squad leader points out a suspected Japanese position at the edge of Balete Pass, near Baguio, where troops of the 25th Infantry Division are in fierce combat with Japanese forces. 23 March 1945.
The Battle of Luzon (Tagalog: Labanan sa Luzon; Japanese: ルソン島の戦い; Spanish: Batalla de Luzón) was a land battle of the Pacific Theater of Operations of World War II by the Allied forces of the U.S., its colony the Philippines, Mexico, and allies against forces of the Empire of Japan. The battle resulted in a U.S. and Filipino victory. The Allies had taken control of all strategically and economically important locations of Luzon by March 1945, although pockets of Japanese resistance held out in the mountains until the unconditional surrender of Japan.[24] While not the highest in U.S. casualties, it is the highest net casualty battle U.S. forces fought in World War II, with 192,000 to 217,000 Japanese combatants dead (mostly from starvation and disease),[25] 8,000 American combatants killed, and over 150,000 Filipinos, overwhelmingly civilians who were murdered by Japanese forces, mainly during the Manila massacre of February 1945.
Background
The Philippines was considered to be of great strategic importance because their capture by Japan would pose a significant threat to the U.S. As a result, 135,000 troops and 227 aircraft were stationed in the Philippines by October 1941. However, Luzon—the largest island in the Philippines—was captured by Imperial Japanese forces in 1942. GeneralDouglas MacArthur—who was in charge of the defense of the Philippines at the time—was ordered to Australia, and the remaining U.S. forces retreated to the Bataan Peninsula.[26]
A few months after this, MacArthur expressed his belief that an attempt to recapture the Philippines was necessary. The U.S. Pacific Commander AdmiralChester Nimitz and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Ernest King both opposed this idea, arguing that it must wait until victory was certain. MacArthur had to wait two years for his wish; it was 1944 before a campaign to recapture the Philippines was launched. The island of Leyte was the first objective of the campaign, which was captured by the end of December 1944. This was followed by the attack on Mindoro, and later, Luzon.[26]
Prelude
Before U.S. forces could launch the attack on Luzon, a base of operation needed to be established close to the island. Airbases in particular had to be established in order to provide the advancing troops with air support. Troops under Brigadier General William C. Dunckel captured the island of Mindoro, with the assistance of the 7th Fleet. By 28 December, two airbases were controlled by the U.S. and were ready to assist in the attack on Luzon, which was scheduled to be launched on 9 January 1945. With the capture of Mindoro, U.S. forces were positioned south of Luzon. However, MacArthur intended to land his forces at Lingayen, further north.[27] This would place his troops close to several roads and railways on Luzon, which led to Manila—the main objective—through the plains in the center of the island.[24]
Deception operations
U.S. aircraft constantly made reconnaissance and bombing flights over southern Luzon, intending to deceive the Japanese forces into believing that the attack on Luzon would come from the south. In addition, transport aircraft were used to make parachute drops with dummies. Minesweepers were used to clear the bays of Balayan, Batangas, and Tayabas, located to the south of Luzon, and Filipino resistance fighters conducted sabotage operations in southern Luzon. These deception operations failed to convince General Yamashita, the leader of the Imperial Japanese Army in the Philippines, and he built significant defensive positions in the hills and mountains surrounding Lingayen Gulf in Northern Luzon.[27]
Opposing forces
Allied
Theatre and ground force commanders for the liberation of the Philippines
The battleshipsPennsylvania and Colorado lead three cruisers into Lingayen Gulf for the pre-assault bombardment of Japanese shore positions
The assault on Luzon was launched, as planned, on 9 January 1945, codenamed S-day. The Japanese forces reported more than 70 Allied warships entering Lingayen Gulf, though the total Allied invasion force involved that month would equal close to 800 ships. Pre-assault bombardment of Japanese shore positions from roughly 70 battleships and cruisers began at 7:00. The landings were commenced an hour later.[29] The landing forces faced strong opposition from Japanese kamikaze aircraft. The escort carrierOmmaney Bay was destroyed by a kamikaze attack, with a total of around 47 ships damaged, and four sunk, on January 3–13, primarily by kamikazes.[30][27] Aircraft from the 3rd Fleet, including Mexico's 201st squadron, assisted the landings with close air support, strafing and bombing Japanese gun positions.[31]
Captain Radamés Gaxiola of Escuadrón 201 stands in front of his P-47D with his maintenance team after returning from a combat mission over Luzon.
The landings at Lingayen Gulf on 9 January were carried out by the 6th Army under the command of General Walter Krueger. Approximately 175,000 troops from the 6th Army landed along the 20-mile (32 km) beachhead within a few days, while the I Corps protected their flanks. XIV Corps under General Oscar Griswold then advanced south toward Manila, despite Krueger's concerns that his eastern flank was unprotected and vulnerable if the Japanese forces attacked. However, no such attack occurred, and the U.S. forces did not meet much resistance until they reached the Clark Air Base on 23 January. The battle there lasted until the end of January, and after capturing the base, XIV Corps advanced toward Manila.[24]
The first wave of troops approaching the beaches of Luzon.
From the middle of January to early February the largest ever tank battle between American and Japanese forces took place. The Japanese 2nd Tank Division's 220 tanks (175 Type 97 ShinHōtō Chi-Ha medium tanks, 25 Type 89 I-Go medium tanks, and 20 Type 95 Ha-Go light tanks) faced off against only 76 American tanks (59 M4 Sherman medium tanks and 17 M5A1 Stuart light tanks) supported by infantry armed with bazookas and dozens of 105mm M7 Priest self-propelled howitzers. Krueger had more tanks held in reserve to the north because of the threat of an unknown number of Japanese tanks being withheld from combat until ambushing them en masse in the exposed open flat plains of Central Luzon so the 76 Shermans and Stuarts and accompanying M7 Priests were tasked with finding and destroying them with their superior guns and armor. The Japanese made this tank battle last for over three weeks instead of a single one-day battle by hiding their tanks behind and under camouflaged and protected fortifications, either digging the tanks into the ground or creating a series of semi-enclosed fortifications for them to move around and reposition during the battles. Some of these tanks were used to patrol and engage the enemy especially at night. From San Manuel to Muñoz the tanks dueled with each other leading to the deaths of hundreds of American soldiers and thousands of Japanese soldiers as well as the loss of dozens of American tanks and around 200 Japanese tanks.[32][33]
A second amphibious landing took place on 15 January, 45 mi (72 km) southwest of Manila. On 31 January, two regiments of the 11th Airborne Division made an airborne assault, capturing a bridge, and later advanced toward Manila. On 3 February, the 1st Cavalry Division captured the bridge across Tullahan River leading to the city. They advanced into the city that evening, beginning the battle for the capture of Manila. On 4 February, the paratroopers of the 11th Airborne—approaching the city from the south—came to the main Japanese defences south of the city of Manila where their advance was halted by heavy resistance. General Yamashita had ordered his troops to destroy all bridges and other vital installations as soon as the U.S. forces entered the city, and Japanese forces entrenched throughout the city continued to resist U.S. forces. General MacArthur announced the imminent recapture of Manila on the same day. On 11 February, the 11th Airborne Division captured the last Japanese outer defences, thus encircling the whole city. U.S. and Filipino forces carried out clearing operations in the city in the following weeks.[24] Military casualties totalled 1,010 Americans, 3,079 Filipinos and 16,000 Japanese.[citation needed]
In the campaign to recapture the island of Luzon in the Philippines, American planes dropped more than one million gallons of napalm in support of ground forces.[34] The weapon attracted little attention during World War II in part because the name “napalm” was classified.[35]
Aftermath
Battles continued throughout the island of Luzon in the following weeks, with more U.S. troops having landed on the island. Filipino and American resistance fighters also attacked Japanese positions and secured several locations.[36] The Allies had taken control of all strategically and economically important locations of Luzon by early March. Small groups of the remaining Japanese forces retreated to the mountainous areas in the north and southeast of the island, where they were besieged for months. Pockets of Japanese soldiers held out in the mountains—most ceasing resistance with the unconditional surrender of Japan, but a scattered few holding out for many years afterwards.[24] Total Japanese losses were 217,000 dead and 9,050 taken prisoner.[37] U.S. losses were 8,310 killed and 29,560 wounded. Civilian casualties are estimated at 120,000 to 140,000 dead.[38] Only 2,000 Japanese troops out of the 30,000 in the Kembu group and 8,300 troops out of the 80,000 in the Shimbu group survived the war. After the Japanese surrender it was revealed that Yamashita's Shobu group in northern Luzon had enough food to sustain themselves for only one more month. Yamashita had planned on committing suicide if the war had continued and almost all of his remaining men died of starvation and were no longer able to fight.[39]
Appendix
Weapons on hand and ammunition expended by Sixth Army units, 9 January 1945 to 30 June 1945, exclusive of Eighth Army phase (173 days):[40]
^Includes only those guerrillas who were 'actively supporting the efforts of the US Army.'
^Sixth Army's After Action Report gives 8,297 killed and missing and 29,557 wounded from 9 January to 30 June 1945.[10] Eighth Army's After Action Report gives 643 battle casualties from 1 July to 15 August (147 killed, 21 died of wounds, 1 missing, and 474 wounded.).[11] The Operational Monograph of the Luzon mop-up gives 655 casualties until 20 August (149 killed, 505 wounded, 1 missing.[12] Casualties to Army Air Force, Navy, and RAAF units other than those directly attached are omitted, even if they occurred in the area of operations.
^Includes approximately 150 US Army soldiers killed and 200 wounded. It's uncertain whether these losses are included in the overall total listed above.
^According to Japanese estimates, up to 80% of their deaths in the Philippines were from non-combat causes[17] Comparing figures published in the Sixth Army's after action report and JM-7, the American figure for counted dead after 27 days (17,724 and 179 prisoners[18]) exceeds the Fourteenth Area Army's self reported total of 6,500 killed and wounded[19] one month after S-Day by 2.75 times. JM-7 reports that by the beginning of April 1945 shortages of foodstuffs had "greatly weakened" the Fourteenth Area Army's fighting power around Baguio.[20]
^Sixth Army reported 173,563 counted dead from 9 January to 30 June 1945. Eighth Army reported 20,301-20,311 from 1 July to 20 August, a total of 193,864 or 193,874.
^Sixth Army reported taking 4,072 prisoners from 9 January to 30 June 1945. Eighth Army reported 2,396-2,397 from 1 July to 20 August, a total of 6,468 or 6,469.
^Killed in action east of Manila. Patrick was mortally wounded by Japanese machine gun fire and died the following day.
^A Japanese area army was equivalent to a Euro-American army. (A Japanese army was equivalent to a Euro-American corps.)
^Hanged after the war for atrocities committed by troops under his command.
References
^Escuadrón 201, a Mexican fighter–bomber squadron that participated during the last phase of the battle.
^Brooks E. Kleber and Dale Birdsell, The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1966), 628, 630-35. The United States military used napalm as a tactical weapon in support of ground forces during World War II.
^Louis F. Fieser, The Scientific Method: A Personal Account of Unusual Projects in War and in Peace (New York: Reinhold, 1964, box 764, Chronological File 1949-June 1954, Office of Security Review, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Legislative and Public Affairs, RG 330, NA.
^"The Philippines (Leyte Gulf)". The War. WETA. September 2007. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2017. The Battle for Luzon cost Japan some 217,000 killed and 9,050 captured.
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