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Zaman Pertengahan Akhir
Wilayah Eropa dan Laut Tengah

Abad Pertengahan Akhir atau Zaman Pertengahan Akhir adalah sebuah zaman dari sejarah Eropa yang utamanya meliputi abad ke-14 sampai ke-15 (sekitar 1300 hingga akhir 1400-an). Abad Pertengahan Akhir menggantikan Puncak Abad Pertengahan dan digantikan oleh zaman modern awal (dan, di kebanyakan wilayah Eropa, Renaisans).

Serangkaian bencana kelaparan dan wabah penyakit, seperti Bencana Kelaparan Besar 1315–1317 dan Wabah Hitam, membuat jumlah penduduk berkurang menjadi setengah.^[1] Selain berkurangnya populasi, terjadi pula ketegangan sosial dan peperangan endemik. Prancis dan Inggris mengalami kebangkitan-kebangkitan yang serius dari kalangan petani: Jacquerie, Pemberontakan Petani, serta konflik selama lebih dari seabad dalam Perang Seratus Tahun. Selain beberapa masalah tersebut, persatuan Gereja Katolik digoncangkan dengan Skisma Barat. Secara kolektif, peristiwa-peristiwa tersebut terkadang disebut sebagai Krisis Abad Pertengahan Akhir.^[2]

Selain krisis tersebut, abad ke-14 juga merupakan zaman perkembangan besar dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan dan seni rupa. Setelah pemahaman yang diperbaharukan dalam teks-teks Romawi dan Yunani kuno mulai berakar pada Puncak Abad Pertengahan, Renaisans Italia dimulai. Pemakaian teks-teks Latin dimulai sebelum Renaisans pada abad ke-12 melalui kontak dengan bangsa Arab pada masa Perang Salib, namun ketersediaan teks-teks Yunani berpengaruh dipakai saat penaklukan Konstantinopel oleh Turki Ottoman, ketika beberapa sarjana Bizantium mengungsi ke wilayah Barat, utamanya Italia.^[3]

Referensi

Sumber

Utama:

The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 6: c. 1300 - c. 1415, (2000). Michael Jones (ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36290-3.
The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 7: c. 1415 - c. 1500, (1998). Christopher Allmand (ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-38296-3.
Brady, Thomas A., Jr., Heiko A. Oberman, James D. Tracy (eds.) (1994). Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation. Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09762-7.
Cantor, Norman (1994). The Civilization of the Middle Ages. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-017033-6.
Hay, Denys (1988). Europe in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (edisi ke-2nd). London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-49179-7.
Hollister, C. Warren (2005). Medieval Europe: A Short History (edisi ke-10th). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-07-295515-5.
Holmes, George (ed.) (2001). The Oxford History of Medieval Europe (edisi ke-New). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280133-3.
Keen, Maurice (1991). The Penguin History of Medieval Europe (edisi ke-New). London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-013630-4.
Le Goff, Jacques (2005). The Birth of Europe: 400-1500. WileyBlackwell. ISBN 0-631-22888-8.
Waley, Daniel; Denley, Peter (2001). Later Medieval Europe: 1250-1520 (edisi ke-3rd). London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-25831-6.

Wilayah spesifik:

Abulafia, David (1997). The Western Mediterranean Kingdoms: The Struggle for Dominion, 1200-1500. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-07820-2.
Duby, Georges (1993). France in the Middle Ages, 987-1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc (edisi ke-New). WileyBlackwell. ISBN 0-631-18945-9.
Fine, John V.A. (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest (edisi ke-Reprint). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4.
Jacob, E.F. (1961). The Fifteenth Century: 1399–1485. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821714-5.
McKisack, May (1959). The Fourteenth Century: 1307–1399. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821712-9.
Mango, Cyril (ed.) (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814098-3.
Martin, Janet (2007). Medieval Russia, 980–1584 (edisi ke-2nd). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85916-6.
Najemy, John M. (ed.) (2004). Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1550 (edisi ke-New). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870040-7.
Petry, Carl F. (1998). The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1. Cambridge: E.J. Brill. ISBN 9780521471374.
Reilly, Bernard F. (2008). 978-1845115494. Cambridge: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1845115494.
Wandycz, Piotr (2001). The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present (edisi ke-2nd). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25491-4.

Masyarakat:

Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1994). Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture (edisi ke-Reprint). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4.
Chazan, Robert (2006). The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom: 1000-1500. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-61664-6.
Herlihy, David (1985). Medieval Households. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-56375-1.
Herlihy, David (1968). Medieval Culture and Society. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-88133-747-1.
Jordan, William Chester (1996). The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01134-6.
Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane (1994). A history of women in the West (edisi ke-New). Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-40368-1.

Wabah Hitam:

Benedictow, Ole J. (2004). The Black Death 1346-1353: The Complete History. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-943-5.
Herlihy, David (1997). The Black Death and the transformation of the West. Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-7509-3202-3.
Horrox, Rosemary (1994). The Black Death. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-3497-3.
Shillington, Kevin (2004). Encyclopedia of African History, Volume 1 (edisi ke-1st). Taylor & Francis, Inc.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781579582456.
Ziegler, Philip (2003). The Black Death (edisi ke-New). Sutton: Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-7509-3202-3.

Peperangan:

Allmand, Christopher (1988). The Hundred Years War: England and France at War c.1300-c.1450. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31923-4.
Chase, Kenneth (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521822749.
Contamine, Philippe (1984). War in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-13142-6.
Curry, Anne (1993). The Hundred Years War. Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-53175-2.
Davis, Paul K. (2001). 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195143663.
Keen, Maurice (1984). Chivalry. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03150-5.
Verbruggen, J. F. (1997). The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340 (edisi ke-2nd). Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-630-4.

Ekonomi:

Cipolla, Carlo M. (1993). Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy 1000–1700 (edisi ke-3rd). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09005-9.
Cipolla, Carlo M. (ed.) (1993). The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Volume 1: The Middle Ages (edisi ke-2nd). New York: Fontana Books. ISBN 0-85527-159-0.
Postan, M.M. (2002). Mediaeval Trade and Finance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52202-1.
Pounds, N.J.P. (1994). An Economic History of Medieval Europe (edisi ke-2nd). London and New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-21599-4.

Agama:

Kenny, Anthony (1985). Wyclif. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-287647-3.
MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2005). The Reformation. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-303538-X.
Ozment, Steven E. (1980). The Age of Reform, 1250-1550: An Intellectual and Religious History of Late Medieval and Reformation Europe. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02477-0.
Smith, John H. (1970). The Great Schism, 1378. London: Hamilton. ISBN 0-241-01520-0.
Southern, R.W. (1970). Western society and the Church in the Middle Ages. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-020503-9.

Seni rupa dan ilmu pengetahuan:

Brotton, Jerry (2006). The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280163-5.
Burke, Peter (1998). The European Renaissance: Centres and Peripheries (edisi ke-2nd). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19845-8.
Curtius, Ernest Robert (1991). European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (edisi ke-New). New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01899-5.
Grant, Edward (1996). The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56762-9.
Snyder, James (2004). Northern Renaissance Art: Painting, Sculpture, the Graphic Arts from 1350 to 1575 (edisi ke-2nd). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-189564-8.
Welch, Evelyn (2000). Art in Renaissance Italy, 1350-1500 (edisi ke-reprint). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-284279-X.
Wilson, David Fenwick (1990). Music of the Middle Ages. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-872951-X.

Kutipan

^ Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective. University of New Mexico Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-8263-2871-7.
^ Cantor, p. 480.
^ Cantor, p. 594.